Abraham Lincolns Role in the Civil War Term Paper

Abraham Lincolns Role in the Civil War - Term Paper Example Enslavement, nevertheless, was the chief cause of the ever-increasing political conflict and opposition around the 1850s.There were numerous leaders who greatly contributed to the development and, eventually, the conclusion of this four-year war that killed millions of innocent lives. They, in many ways, have shaped and formed what is known as The Civil War today. Whether to instigate or to stifle the war, these leaders have unquestionably played a great part in it. Among these leaders was President Abraham Lincoln. He, throughout his presidency, has greatly molded and influenced the development and the end of this war. He, in a way, played a role in both the start and end of the Civil War. Many factors indeed instigated the Civil War. The trigger that ultimately pushed war into action was Abraham Lincoln’s victory in the presidential elections. During the presidential election of 1860, the Republican Party spearheaded by Abraham Lincoln had pushed against magnifying slavery o utside the states in which it previously subsisted.The Republicans intensely promoted patriotism, and in their 1860 manifesto they denounced disunion threats as affirmations of treason. This fervent drive to abolish slavery sprung from President Lincoln’s belief that slavery was the main cause of the war. In his second inaugural address, he said, "These slaves constituted a peculiar and powerful interest. All knew that this interest was somehow the cause of the war.†1 In retort to an anti-slavery Republican as the winner of the Presidential election, nearly a dozen Southern slave states in America affirmed their separation and breakaway from the United States. Many of these Southern whites that belonged to the Confederacy felt that secession had grown to be their only choice, as the people understood that Lincoln was against slavery and approved of Northern appeals. Together, they formed the Confederate States of America, better known universally as the Confederacy. Bot h the leaving presidency of President James Buchanan and the entering government disallowed the validity of secession, regarding it as rebellion. The other eight slave states turned pleas for secession down at this point. There was no nation in the world that acknowledged the Confederacy. As the Confederacy formed, the remaining twenty-five states reinforced the federal administration known collectively as the Union. Conflicts started on the April of 1861, when Confederate powers struck a U.S. military installation located at Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. After they severely bombarded the fort, the fort surrendered. A few days later, Lincoln called for a multitude that numbered around 75,000 from the states to recapture the fort and additional national property. Instead of furnishing troops for an assault on their fellow Southern states, North Carolina, Virginia, Arkansas, and Tennessee made a decision to join these states in withdrawal. Lincoln’s response of cal ling for a legion of volunteers led to statements of secession by these four slave states. This reaction to Ft. Sumter was a devastating call for war to support national morality. Only the state of Kentucky made an effort to stay neutral. A congregation of young men all throughout the land was in a great rush to enlist. Both sides built armies as the Union grasped control of the Border States during the early phases of the war and formed a naval barrier. Land combat in the East was indecisive between 1861 and 1862, as the Confederacy retorted Union efforts to seize its capital, Richmond, Virginia, particularly throughout the Peninsular Campaign. In the September of 1862, the Confederate movement in Maryland terminated in defeat at the

Financial Crisis and Brazil Essay Example for Free

Financial Crisis and Brazil Essay The economic crisis that has swept the world since 2008 has wrought havoc in national economies all over the world. As a group, one of the more particularly hard-hit groups of nations has been the Latin American countries of Central and South America. One notable exception to this trend appeared to be the nation of Brazil. The gloomy projections appeared not to apply to Brazil. According to Mauricio Cardenas of the Brooking institute: This doom and gloom has not infected Brazil, however, where President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva is showing unprecedented self-assurance. Speaking in Madrid, Lula said somewhat rhetorically that this idea that markets can do everything is over,† and more fundamentally â€Å"The times in which emerging countries depended on the IMF are over. † This is not Hugo Chavez speaking, but the president of Latin America’s largest economy, who enjoys 80 percent popularity in his country. (Cardenas, 2008) Although Brazil weathered the early months of the financial crisis better than its Latin American neighbors, the longer the crisis has continued, the more the Brazilian economy has weakened. One of the factors that prevented an immediate collapse of the Brazilian Economy in the wake of the 2008 Crisis was the relative lack of foreign banks in the country. (Cardenas, 2008) Unlike many Latin American nations that have a high percentage of foreign banks (i. e. Mexico: 80% foreign banks), Brazil has only 30% foreign banks. (Cardenas, 2008) In the short term, this allowed Brazil to assume that a contraction in foreign lending would not have as deep an impact on their economy than that of other nations. Brazilian banks, in times of previous economic prosperity, had built reserves, rather than engaging in profligate loaning, leading to the hopes that these reserves were sufficient against the day that foreign banks severely restricted credit. (Cardenas, 2008) By September of 2008, this theory seemed to erode in the face of certain economic indicators. The Bovespa index, a market indicator similar to the Dow Jones industrial Average, lost half of its value from May to September of 2008. (Cardenas, 2008) 10% of that drop occurred in the second half of September. More strikingly, the value of Brazil’s currency, the Real, fell 32% against other world currencies. (Cardenas, 2008) These factors show that Brazil may still be prone to suffer in the economic crisis. Other analysts, such as John Williamson of the Peterson Institution of international Economics, have been less sanguine about the prospects of Brazil’s economy. Wiliamson stated: Moreover, the markets decided that while many of the emerging economies might no longer have any need for an inflow of loans, many (like Brazil) are still significant net debtors to the rest of the world and therefore still vulnerable to a sudden withdrawal of foreign credit. Compounding this is the fact that one may have a balanced overall position and still be vulnerable because debts are concentrated at short maturities. Hence one read, for example, of the Bovespa index falling by over 10 percent in a day (it has cumulatively halved in value since the peak in May). Likewise, the real has fallen by a cumulative 32 percent in the past month. The markets clearly do not believe that Brazil has been made invulnerable†¦ (Williamson, 2008) The world market contraction has had a significant effect on Brazil’s foreign trade. (Williamson, 2008) The export economy has relied upon raw materials for 50% of exports, and the prices of these materials have dropped dramatically in the face of world-wide declines in demand. (Williamson, 2008) The other half of Brazil’s exports, differentiated manufactured goods have also decreased in the face of reduced demand. Ironically, the weakness of the real against foreign currencies has softened the negative effect of these factors. (Williamson, 2008) The soft real will inspire increased purchase of manufactured goods from Brazil. This will soften, but not eliminate, the negative effects of low demand. The decrease in foreign capital that these commodity price decreases have reflected, will rapidly eat through Brazil’s trade surplus, and put strain on lending institutions in Brazil. (Williamson, 2008) The future of Brazil’s economy has been reported with varying degrees of optimism. The GDP of Brazil is projected to contract anywhere from 1. 5 to 20% in 2009 after growing 5% in 2008. (Williamson, 2008) An increase in the shift of agricultural exports to China has also contributed to the overall positive projections of the Brazilian economy. (Xinhua, 2009) The increase from March of 2008 (8. 5%) to March of 2009 (12. 5%) amounts of agricultural exports to China reflect this phenomenon. (Xinhua, 2009) The president of Brazil claims that the crisis has passed, and that Brazil has weathered the worst part of the economic crisis of 2008. (Xinhua, 2009) The longevity of the world-wide recession will determine if this is in fact a true prediction. (Xinhua, 2009) Brazil weathered the economic crisis of 2008 comparatively well, but suffered great financial repercussions late in the year. The economy seems to be in a stage of recovery, but its continued well being will rely on the recovery of other nations that control lending power and demand for Brazil’s exports. Work Cited Cardenas, M. (2008) â€Å"Global Financial Crisis: Is Brazil a Bystander? † Retrieved June 4th, 2009 from Brookings Institution website: http://www. brookings. edu/opinions/2008/1015_financial_crisis_cardenas. aspx Williamson, J. (2008) â€Å"The Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on Brazil† Retrieved June 4th, 2009 from Peterson Institution of international Economics website: http://www. iie. com/publications/papers/williamson1008. pdf Xinhua (2009) â€Å"Brazils agricultural exports to China up 52. 5 percent in March† Retrieved June 4th 2009 from China’s people’s Daily website: http://english. people. com. cn/90001/90778/90857/90861/6634356. html

Down Syndrome :: Pregnancy Children Disorder Health Essays

Down Syndrome Although many theories have been developed, it is not known what actually causes Down syndrome. Some professionals believe that hormonal abnormalities, X-rays, viral infections, immunologic problems, or genetic predisposition may be the cause of the improper cell division resulting in Down syndrome. It has been known for some time that the risk of having a child with Down syndrome increases with advancing age of the mother; i.e., the older the mother, the greater the possibility that she may have a child with Down syndrome. However, most babies with Down syndrome (more than 85 percent) are born to mothers younger than 35 years. Some investigators reported that older fathers may also be at an increased risk of having a child with Down syndrome. It is well known that the extra chromosome in trisomy 21 could either originate in the mother or the father. Most often, however, the extra chromosome is coming from the mother. Description People with Down syndrome are first and foremost human beings who have recognizable physical characteristics and limited intellectual endowment which are due to the presence of an extra chromosome 21. The estimated incidence of Down syndrome is between 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 1,100 live births. Each year approximately 3,000 to 5,000 children are born with this chromosome disorder. It is believed there are about 250,000 families in the United States who are affected by Down syndrome. The vast majority of children with Down syndrome (approximately 95 percent) have an extra 21 chromosome. Instead of the normal number of 46 chromosomes in eachcell, the individual with Down syndrome has 47 chromosomes. This condition is called trisomy 21. The second type is called translocation since the extra 21 chromosome is attached or translocated on to another chromosome, usually on chromosome 14, 21 or 22. If translocation is found in a child with Down syndrome, it is important to examine the parents’ chromosomes, since in at least one-third of the cases, a parent may be a carrier of the translocation. This form of chromosome error is found in 3 - 4 percent of the individuals with Down syndrome. Diagnosis The child with Down syndrome is in need of the same kind of medical care as any other child. The pediatrician or family physician should provide general health maintenance, immunizations, attend to medical emergencies, and offer support and counseling to the family. There are, however, situations when children with Down syndrome need special attention. Down Syndrome :: Pregnancy Children Disorder Health Essays Down Syndrome Although many theories have been developed, it is not known what actually causes Down syndrome. Some professionals believe that hormonal abnormalities, X-rays, viral infections, immunologic problems, or genetic predisposition may be the cause of the improper cell division resulting in Down syndrome. It has been known for some time that the risk of having a child with Down syndrome increases with advancing age of the mother; i.e., the older the mother, the greater the possibility that she may have a child with Down syndrome. However, most babies with Down syndrome (more than 85 percent) are born to mothers younger than 35 years. Some investigators reported that older fathers may also be at an increased risk of having a child with Down syndrome. It is well known that the extra chromosome in trisomy 21 could either originate in the mother or the father. Most often, however, the extra chromosome is coming from the mother. Description People with Down syndrome are first and foremost human beings who have recognizable physical characteristics and limited intellectual endowment which are due to the presence of an extra chromosome 21. The estimated incidence of Down syndrome is between 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 1,100 live births. Each year approximately 3,000 to 5,000 children are born with this chromosome disorder. It is believed there are about 250,000 families in the United States who are affected by Down syndrome. The vast majority of children with Down syndrome (approximately 95 percent) have an extra 21 chromosome. Instead of the normal number of 46 chromosomes in eachcell, the individual with Down syndrome has 47 chromosomes. This condition is called trisomy 21. The second type is called translocation since the extra 21 chromosome is attached or translocated on to another chromosome, usually on chromosome 14, 21 or 22. If translocation is found in a child with Down syndrome, it is important to examine the parents’ chromosomes, since in at least one-third of the cases, a parent may be a carrier of the translocation. This form of chromosome error is found in 3 - 4 percent of the individuals with Down syndrome. Diagnosis The child with Down syndrome is in need of the same kind of medical care as any other child. The pediatrician or family physician should provide general health maintenance, immunizations, attend to medical emergencies, and offer support and counseling to the family. There are, however, situations when children with Down syndrome need special attention.

Underclassman Advice

If I could give an underclassman some advice, I would definitely give It about school, family, and relationships. As you grow up, you will soon realize how much time Is worth; also, stay out of trouble! Nobody wants to be grounded when they could be out with their friends. My first piece of advice Is to work hard In school. To be a good student, you must do your best in everything you do. Do your homework! Put all of your effort Into each and every test and assignment.No matter how young you are, you need to start y researching about the life you wish to have, and the places you want to go to be successful In your eyes. My second piece of advice Is to always love your family. I know, parents can be tough, but know that they mean well. Family Is a very Important thing In life. They are the people that will always be there, no matter what you have done. Listen to your parents. Before you know it, you will be saying goodbye to them, heading off onto a road that is unfamiliar, but they h ave to believe in you and hope that everything they have taught you will be enough.Don't let them down. My last please of advice is to not be wrapped up in your â€Å"lover† throughout high school. You dont need to rely on somebody else and then expect to be independent after you guys break up. Most relationships don't last in high school anyways, so why wait for the harsh break up? All of this advice will help you grow up and be a good student, perfect daughter/son, and live a drama free life throughout high school. A student shouldnt worry because of unneeded stress, for they should Just have fun. I hope that you will use this advice and actually get something out of it. Just be mature and do your best.

Blue Shield Health Insurance Essay

The Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association (BCBSA) serves independent local Blue Cross and Blue Shield companies as its trade association. The BCBSA is one of the nation’s oldest and biggest health benefits company, widely recognized in the health insurance industry, given its 800 strong employee strength, across 39 companies in Chicago and Washington D. C. BCBSA companies together cover about 98 million people or about every one in three Americans. The reach and spread of the BCBSA is really immense covering all 50 states and the District of Columbia, in contract with over 90% of the hospitals and 80% of physicians. The products serviced by BCBSA covers individuals to small and large employers, ensuring coverage to all citizens. Through its several unprecedented and innovative schemes, Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association tries to bring healthcare insurance to all people providing hope and security to everyone. The Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association is an insurance provider covering healthcare for more than 98 millions, nearly one in three Americans. Healthcare insurance is a must for everyone. It is necessary to keep the economy going and growing because once the people are covered under some healthcare insurance, their medical needs are adequately taken care of, which makes their productivity go up because better health obviously results in better work performance. If the concept of insurance were not Blue Cross and Blue Shield 3 there, then every individual would have had to save a huge amount of money as reserve to cover some unforeseen or unexpected calamities. Healthcare is one aspect which can never be compromised. With the mounting medical expenses, people without a healthcare insurance can just not afford to avail proper preventive and therapeutic treatment. With the cost of medical services growing by leaps and bounds, healthcare insurance is imperative for one and all. Healthcare insurance company also stands to benefit because when they are likely to pay more in claims than what they get in premiums, a hike in the premium is anticipated. Under the employer-sponsored healthcare insurance, the employer spends roughly five times more than what the employee contributes. But the increasing medical costs have a great impact on the employers who have to pay out huge sums as premiums for their employees. From 1998 to 2003, there was a national increase of 42% in individual premiums after adjustments made with regard to inflation. With the increase in medical costs, employees are forced to contribute a sizable amount towards their coverage, so they opt to stay away from the job-based health insurance plans. The employers depend more on part-time and contract workers who are often not eligible for coverage. So fewer people access employer-paid healthcare insurance. The job instability too contributes in the steady increase of the number of uninsured people. And then there are some firms, which do not provide health insurance to their employees. With the shooting medical expenses, it is difficult for people to go for healthcare coverage, as the premiums are high. This leaves them uninsured, which again has drastic effects affecting Blue Cross and Blue Shield 4 both the people and the company. So, healthcare insurance has now become something that people can neither do with nor do without it. To combat this scenario, Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association brings various new schemes taking into consideration the needs of every individual. With no insurance and with the exorbitant medical expenses, the health care of the people is greatly compromised. They go in for lesser preventive care with the result diseases get out of hand before they are diagnosed, and even when diagnosed, the treatment costs are so huge that the therapeutic care is compromised. With no insurance, people are expected to pay up-front for the medical services and so they defer medical care except when it is life threatening. This also affects the government because it has to cater to the medical needs of the uninsured, which has a terrible impact on the economy because the expenses of the emergency department is much higher than in the outpatient clinics, and the conditions are often those that could have been averted or postponed with preventive care. Proper health insurance package is the icing on the cake. The medical expenses are so much that healthcare insurance acts as a major deciding factor when people seek jobs. With the ever-increasing medical expenses, every individual has to be insured medically so that they can avail the needed healthcare. But with the increased insurance premiums, the number of uninsured people is on the high. Furthermore, insurances have too many exclusions like certain drugs not being covered, certain Blue Cross and Blue Shield 5 procedures not being covered and the like, which again discourages people from being insured, which is detrimental to the citizens as well as the country at large. Even with insurance, the prospects of the people losing their jobs and thereby their insurances is there. There definitely have to be changes in the system so that every individual could be worked into the health insurance plan. The view of Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association president and CEO Scott P Serota testifies this â€Å"With such divergent political ideologies, it is unprecedented for these groups to have a joint agreement. Helping the millions of Americans who do not have health insurance is an issue that needs to transcend politics and partisanship, and that is why we worked together to give Congress a starting point that we can all support. † The 2005 data shows that one in seven American was uninsured thus depriving them of basic healthcare. The Institute of Medicine has that approximately 18,000 die every year of diseases that could have either been treated or prevented had they had health coverage. Lack of insurance prevents people leading a quality life, and it also brings down their productivity because of their recurrent ailments. The first annual National Walk @ Lunch Day to be held on Wednesday, April 18, 2007, by BCBSA (Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association) will definitely bring about an awareness among people about the need for an active lifestyle, which obviously would usher in better health. Unlike the usual health insurance companies, Blue cross and Blues Shield Association design innovative schemes to match the diversified requirement of the market. It does a Blue Cross Blue shield 6 lot of activity to keep the competition at bay. Even though profit making is the main objective in any organization, Blue cross and Blues Shield Association takes care that it does not become the sole objective. A paradigm shift in this regard is obvious by the mere existence of CareFirst, the non profit health care company which provides health insurance products and administrative services. In the current scenario where the number of uninsured people is on the rise, Blue cross and Blues Shield Association has to be applauded for its efforts in trying to bring the maximum people under the healthcare insurance cover. REFERENCES www. nchc. org www. bcbs. com www. money. cnn. com

Killer Whales

Killer Whales Killer whales, next to humans, are the most widely distributed mammals. Killer whales live in all oceans of the world, however are plentiful in the Arctic, the Antarctic, and areas of cold-water upwelling. Time to time, they can be found along the shores of Washington, Vancouver, Oregon, California, Baja California, along the eastern coast of the United States not to mention the Resurrection Bay, Kachemak Bay, San Juan Islands, and Orcas Island.In addition killer whales also have been seen in warm water areas such as Hawaii, Australia, Galapagos Islands, Bahamas, and the Gulf of Mexico. These sightings are rare, but they do show the killer whales' ability to venture around. Even more surprising is that the killer whales have been seen in fresh water rivers around the world! Places such as the Rhine, the Thames, and the Elbe. One even traveled 177 km up the Columbia River to eat fish! Although killer whales can be found in both the open ocean and coastal waters, they primarily inhabit the continental shelf in waters less than 200 m (656 ft.)Type C killer whales in the Ross Sea. The eye patc...deep. Currents such as the Alaska Current (in the region of Vancouver), and the Gulf Stream (the coast of eastern United States) are warm currents. The western part the United States is mainly made up of cold currents as well as the artic and Antarctic currents. In coldwater areas, the distributions of these Orcas whales are limited by seasonal pack ice.In some areas, the seasonal movements of killer whales are influenced by the migration of fish and other prey. In eastern Canada, killer whale movements are often a response to seal and rorqual whale migrations, while northeastern Atlantic killer whales seem to follow herring. In the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort seas, killer whales make considerable seasonal movements in response...

Mixing Regular and Synthetic Motor Oils

Mixing Regular and Synthetic Motor Oils Heres a practical chemistry question for you: Do you know what happens if you mix regular and synthetic motor oil? Lets say the mechanic put synthetic oil in your car when you got your oil changed. You stop at a gas station and see you are running about a quart low, but all you can get is regular motor oil. Is it alright to use the regular oil or will you risk harming your engine by doing so? Mixing Motor Oil According to Mobil Oil, it should be fine to mix oils. This manufacturer states it would be unlikely anything bad would happen, such as a gel-forming from an interaction of the chemicals (a common fear), because the oils are compatible with each other. Many oils are a blend of natural and synthetic oils. So, if you are low on oil, dont be afraid to add a quart or two of synthetic oil if you are using regular oil or even regular oil if you are using a synthetic. You dont need to rush right out and get an oil change so youll have pure oil. Possible Negative Effects It is not recommended to routinely mix oils because the additives in different products may interact or the oils may become destabilized by the mixture. You may reduce or negate the properties of the additives. You could lose the benefits of the more expensive synthetic oil. So, adding regular oil to your special synthetic oil will mean youll need to get your oil changed sooner than you would have otherwise. If you have a high-performance engine, its possible it will be displeased if the (expensive) additives cant work the way they are supposed to. This may not damage your engine, but it wont help its performance. The Difference Between Regular and Synthetic Oil Both conventional and synthetic motor oils are derived from petroleum, but they can be very different products. Conventional oil is refined from crude oil. It circulates through the engine to keep it cool and prevent wear by acting as a lubricant. It helps prevent corrosion, keeps surfaces clean, and seals the engine. Synthetic oil serves the same purpose, but its tailored for higher temperature and pressure. Synthetic oil is also refined, but then its distilled and purified so that it contains fewer impurities and a smaller, select set of molecules. Synthetic oil also contains additives intended to help keep an engine cleaner and protect it from damage. The main difference between regular and synthetic oil is the temperature at which it undergoes thermal degradation. In a high-performance engine, regular oil is more apt to pick up deposits and form sludge. Cars that run hot do better with synthetic oil. For most automobiles, the only real difference youll see is that synthetic costs more initially but lasts longer between oil changes.

Does the SAT Essay Matter Expert Guide

Does the SAT Essay Matter Expert Guide SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips In days of yore, the SAT Essay was very different. For starters, it was a required portion of the exam, scored as part of the writing section. You had a measly 25 minutes to give and support your opinion on such deep philosophical issues as the importance of privacy or whether people perform better when they can use their own methods to complete tasks. Things are very different now. Along with the SAT itself, the SAT Essay has been completely revamped and revised. Among other things, it is now an optional portion of the exam.In light of this SAT Essay renovation, many schools will no longer require that students take the SAT Essay when they take the exam. But what do all these changes mean for you? Is the SAT Essay important?Read on for a breakdown of the new SAT changes, information on which schools continue to require the SAT Essay, why schools do and don’t require this portion of the exam, and how to figure out if the SAT Essay is necessary or important for you. The New SAT Essay The SAT was revised in March 2016. The aspect of the exam that is most changed is the essay. Instead of writing a 25-minute opinion piece, you will have 50 minutes to analyze how the author of a given passage constructs his or her argument. Additionally, instead of having the exam integrated into your composite score, you will receive a separate score for your exam that does not affect your 1600-point score. The new exam is graded out of 24 points - 8 points each in â€Å"Reading† (essentially reading comprehension), â€Å"Analysis,† and â€Å"Writing† (writing style). See our breakdown of the new rubric here. Finally, the new essay is a completely optional portion of the exam. You don’t have to take it, and you’ll still get your 1600-point score. In this way it’s a lot like the ACT, which also has an optional essay. If you wish to register for the SAT Essay, you’ll pay an extra $.50. Because the essay is now optional, colleges have the option of not requiring students to send SAT Essay scores. Thus, many colleges have dropped this requirement.So who still requires the SAT Essay? Let this creepy happy pencil guide you through the SAT Essay! Who Requires the New SAT Essay? According to a Kaplan poll in which 300 schools were surveyed, most schools will not require the optional SAT Essay. However, some still do recommend or require it, particularly in the most selective tier of institutions. Notably, elite schools like the Ivy League, Stanford, MIT, and the University of Chicago are divided on the issue, with some requiring the essay and some neither requiring or recommending it. In the Ivy League, Harvard, Princeton, Dartmouth and Yale will continue to require the SAT Essay, and Columbia, Cornell, UPenn, and Brown will not. Big state schools are similarly divided: for example, the University of California system and the University of Michigan both require the essay, University of Illinois and Purdue University recommend it; and Penn State, University of Wisconsin-Madison, and Indiana University neither require nor recommend the essay. For the most up-to-date information on a school’s position on the SAT Essay, check the College Board. If the school isn’t on the list, check their admissions website.Those schools that do require the essay have gone on the record with specific reasons for doing so; I’ll break those down in the next section. Schools are divided, like this egg. Why Do Schools Require the SAT Essay? Given that so many schools won’t require the essay going forward, you may be curious about those that do still require it. What’s their reasoning?Based on public statements from school officials, it seems to boil down to three main reasons: #1: More Information Is Better Some colleges seem to feel that all of the information they can get from applicants is helpful in painting a complete picture of the applicant. Certainly the SAT Essay presents a somewhat unique data point in that there are no other standardized elements of a college application that would include specific information on an applicant’s timed writing skills. It makes sense that schools that value having all the information that it is conceivably possible to obtain about a student would require the SAT Essay. #2: The Revised Test Is Similar to College Work The old SAT Essay involved a fairly arbitrary task and bore no resemblance to any work students do in college. However, the revised essay engages a student’s rhetorical analysis skills and requires the kind of analytical thinking students will perform in college. Thus, some colleges require the new SAT Essay because they feel it gives valuable insight into how a student might perform with college-level work. #3: Sending a Message on the Importance of Writing Institutions may also require the SAT Essay simply because they wish to telegraph to the world that they believe writing is important. This was part of the rationale given by Yale as to why they would continue to require the essay. That’s why schools require it- but what about schools that don’t require the essay? What’s their reasoning? Cats or dogs: another hot-button issue at elite institutions Why Don't Schools Require the SAT Essay? There are four main reasons that schools have given for not requiring the SAT essay going forward: #1: Consistency Many schools already do not require the optional writing portion of the ACT. So now that the SAT Essay is also optional, it makes sense to not require it, either. This simply makes testing guidelines consistent for those schools. #2: The Essay Is Redundant Some schools feel that they already have sufficient evidence of an applicant’s writing capability through application essays. This is particularly true at institutions where multiple essays are required as part of the application. #3: The SAT Essay Does Not Predict College Success In the past, the old SAT essay has been shown to be the least predictive element of college success on the SAT. While there is not yet data on the new SAT essay’s predictive capabilities, schools have taken this opportunity to shed what they feel is basically dead weight in an application. #4: Requiring the SAT Essay Presents a Burden to Underprivileged Students Columbia’s primary concern is that the extra cost of the essay may be a deterrent to underprivileged students. University of Pennsylvania has made similar statements- minority and underprivileged students are least likely to have a â€Å"complete testing profile.† So, they’ve eliminated the SAT Essay requirement in the hopes of attracting a more diverse applicant pool. A diverse tomato pool. So Does theSAT Essay Matter to Your College Chances? I’ve gone over how and why schools use or don’t use the SAT Essay. But what does all of this mean for you? There are two main questions you need to answer to determine how important the essay is for you: first, should you take the SAT Essay section, and second, how important is your score? Should I Take the SAT Essay? This comes down mostly to whether or not you are applying to schools that require or recommend the SAT Essay. (In college applications, I would generally err on the side of treating recommendations as nicely-worded requirements.) If you are truly not interested in a single school that requires/recommends the essay, and you don’t see yourself changing your mind, go ahead and skip it.However, if there’s even a chance you might be interested in a school that does require/recommend the essay, you should take it. And if you’re applying to highly selective schools, definitely take the essay portion, because around half of them require the essay. So if you change your mind at the last minute and decide you’re applying to CalTech as well as MIT, you’ll need that essay. I advise this because if you don’t take the essay portion and then end up needing it for even one school, you’ll have to take the entire test over again. If you’re happy with your score already, this will be a big four-hour drag for you. You might also want to take the essay portion if you are particularly good at rhetorical analysis and timed writing. Even for colleges that don’t require the essay, a stellar score will look good. How Important Is Your SAT Essay Score? This is a little more complicated, as it does depend to a certain extent on the schools you are applying to.I spoke to admissions officers from several schools, and some themes emerged as to how important they consider your essay score to be, and how they use it in evaluating your application: The general consensus was that the essay was the least important part of the SAT overall. Admissions offices will look much more closely at your composite score. The SAT Essay is primarily looked at in combination with your other writing-based application materials: your admissions essay and your high school English transcripts are also used to determine your writing and language skills. Essentially, it’s a part of a facet of your application. That said, bombing the essay would be a red flag to admissions officers that you might not be fully prepared for college-level work. Overall, I would advise you not to sweat your essay score too much. The most important thing is that your essay score is more or less consistent with your other test scores. It certainly doesn’t have to be perfect- if you get a 1600 and an 18 out of 24, I wouldn’t stress too much. But if you, say, have a 1500 and get a 9/24 on the essay, that’s a little more concerning, as it may cause concern among admissions officers that you aren’t prepared for college-level work. In general, then, schoolsreally look at the score, but it’s not one of the most important parts of your application or even your SAT score.Your best bet if you are interested in a given school that requires the essay and you want more specific guidance how they use the essay is to call the admissions office and ask. To learn more about what a good SAT Essay score is, check out our guide to the average SAT Essay score. Not this kind of score! How Can I Succeed on the SAT Essay? Luckily, it’s very possible to learn the skills to hit the SAT Essay out of the park every time. Here are some general tips: Learn specific persuasive and argumentative techniques that you can reference in your essay. If you can’t identify what devices authors can use to make arguments, how will you write an essay about it? Make sure you have a clear thesis that can be defended with evidence from the passage. Include an introduction and a conclusion. This will help â€Å"bracket† your great points and show that you know how to structure a solid piece of writing. Rely on evidence from the passage to build your argument. Don’t give your opinion on the issue! The new SAT essay is not opinion-based. Make sure you use correct grammar and academic language. (No â€Å"This passage, like my brows, is on fleek.†) Write at least a page. Also see this guide to getting a perfect SAT Essay score and this one on improving your score. Tips to success: don't fold up the Essay section into origami boats. Final Summary and Actionables With the new SAT making the essay section optional, many schools have chosen to neither require nor recommend that students take it. Most schools will no longer require the essay, but highly selective schools are divided on the issue. Among those schools that do require the SAT Essay, many have gone on the record to say that they feel the essay provides a valuable additional piece of information on an applicant’s potential for college-level work. They plan on using the essay as a way to further evaluate an applicant’s writing skills, although for most of these schools it is considered the least important part of the SAT score. At schools where the SAT Essay is not required, the essay has been eliminated for a variety of reasons: for more consistency with ACT requirements, because the Essay seems redundant or poorly predictive of college success, or to attract a more diverse applicant pool. What does all this mean for you?If there’s even a chance you’ll apply to a school that requires or recommends the essay, take the SAT with Essay. If you don’t and end up needing it later, you’ll have to re-take the entire exam. If you do take the SAT Essay, don’t stress too much about getting a perfect score, but do prepare enough that you are confident you won’t get a very low score compared to your composite. What's Next? If you're thinking about test scores and college, check out my article on the minimum SAT score for college. Ready to get started with practice essays? Check out our thorough analysis of the SAT essay prompt and our complete list of prompts to practice with. Aiming for a perfect SAT essay score? Read our guides to get strategies on how to get an 8/8/8 on your SAT essay. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? Check out our best-in-class online SAT prep classes. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your SAT score by 160 points or more. Our classes are entirely online, and they're taught by SAT experts. If you liked this article, you'll love our classes. Along with expert-led classes, you'll get personalized homework with thousands of practice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step, custom program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Try it risk-free today:

The Godfather Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Godfather - Research Paper Example This paper makes an analysis of the whole film, its plot and characters. According to the paper the film consists of a number of themes that can be developed into a number of films. For instance, the film can be evaluated as a gangster film which portrays the war among the mafia groups in New York. On the other side, this film can be evaluated as the after effect of the disagreement among mafia families in New York. At the same time, this film represents the growth of some immigrant families into mafia families. From a different angle, this film represents the dilemma faced by protagonist and his rapid development to a mafia leader. In short, the film does is not confined to the context of a gangster film, but extends to the contexts of personal/family problems and violence. This paper comes to the conclusion that the most important advantage of the film is the importance given to the message against violence and bloodshed. As pointed out, the director makes use of the main characters to convey his message to the viewers. Within this context, the director makes use of the film as a medium to create awareness among the mass on end result of drug trafficking and related violence. On the other hand, the most important disadvantage of the film is that it deals with violence and bloodshed as an integral part of the underworld. This may create bias against the underdogs in the society. So, one can see that the film is with a number of pros and cons. In short, the director’s aim to make use of his characters as his mouthpiece to convey his message against the anti-social elements in the society proves to be successful to an extent.

Preparation for counselling and psychotherapy practice Essay - 1

Preparation for counselling and psychotherapy practice - Essay Example EFT gives individuals an opportunity to learn how to tolerate and regulate, reflect on emotions in order to make sense of them and mostly transform them. It systematically meant to help clients be aware and make their emotions be of a productive use. Emotion-focused therapy has its principal of change that it mainly works on Clients have to change after going through EFT. It makes people who attend the session to discover their past experiences and takes through a process of change. Some clients who go for EFT have had past painful experiences that arouse emotions. The therapists use experimental methods to teach clients to make health contacts with physical sensations, memories, feeling and thoughts that have been ignored in the past. EFT provides resources to that can transform maladaptive emotions developed from traumatic experiences (Greenberg, Carlson, American Psychological Association, & Governors State University 2007). EFT has been noticed to work for different individuals and populations. Initially, it was meant to advise couples. EFT primary goal over time has been to reorganize and expand emotional responses. EFT outlines emotional responses that are classified into four types: primary adaptive responses that are initial emotions to a given stimulus. They include sadness, anger, and fear. Primary adaptive emotions are expressed to help solving problems. Primary maladaptive is an emotional response to a stimulus that is from an experience that was traumatic in the past. Treatment, in this case, will aim to transform the individual’s emotions through taking them through new experiences (Power, Philippot, Hess, & Wiley InterScience (Online service) 2010). The third response is secondary reactive emotion response that responds to past emotional responses and replaces it. It is associated with a feeling of hopelessness, desperation, and even helplessness. The therapy will help increase awareness and address primary

Challenges of orgnizational change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Challenges of orgnizational change - Essay Example Challenge in strategic organization change is one of the most common problems that face organization (Reiss, 2011, 54). This problem involves an organization that may require making several imperative changes in the course of its operations. Many organizations set goals prior to engaging in a particular activity and a time may come that the management may find it necessary to make some changes in the course of operations. A challenge that may come up regarding this is the fact that the organization may lack sufficient resources to accommodate for these changes. A challenge that may pose is on structural change. This challenge is most common with organizations that may decide to fire some of the most important managers due to poor performance (Zentes, 2013, 32). This works effectively in that the company gets to cut its weak links. However, finding a person to replace the retrenched person is difficult owing to varying qualifications and experience. Process oriented change is another difficult change that takes place in organizations (Pritts, 2007, 78). This challenge is mostly financial from the fact that a company may require to re-engineer the various processes that it engages. This is imperative for an organization that seeks to score a higher number of clients. However, the company may have the problem of understanding the points from which to begin changes in the processes as it may disrupt already running processes. People- centered challenge is the other organizational challenge that may come up (Paton, 2008, 56). This challenge normally involves the organization getting new employees for a particular activity or rather business venture that it seeks to engage. There may be challenges in the training of these individuals that might slow down the operations of the organization. Culture is another organizational change that exists and involves the organization adapting to a new market where people have a different culture as compared

Ethnography and the interpretation of cultures Essay

Ethnography and the interpretation of cultures - Essay Example being studied However, for a social scientist the laboratory is the culture being studied and it is impossible to manipulate parts of it without destroying the culture itself. Furthermore to gain insight into the whys of cultural practices researchers must often ingratiate themselves with the people studied. However the argument is that too much emotional attachment can affect the researcher’s objectivity and thereby call into question his research conclusions. This article traces the history of changes in anthropological approaches to ethnographic studies over the years. At first blush this is a confusing phraseology, but as I understand it from the author’s explanation, the difference is that in participant observation the researcher participates in the culture’s practices but observes for study only the culture’s symbols, status relationships, norms, values, etc. to determine their significance in relation to how the culture functions (Tedlock, B. 1991) On the other hand under â€Å"observation of participation† the researcher is also more aware of the effect his participation may have on the culture and therefore tries to broaden his observations to himself as well as the culture being studied. In other words in an effort to achieve a greater degree of scientific validity he attempts to be more aware of for example any notions of cultural superiority which might color his perceptions and make him appreciate less how the practices he observes play roles in enabling the culture studied to function effectively in the context in which it operates. The author makes the point that that the recent broadening of the pool of recruits doing ethnographies to include both genders, different races and socioeconomic levels, etc. are more likely to study cultures objectively in context in th â€Å"observation of participation† methodology than their largely male, white, upper class forerunners many of whom had the â€Å"baggage† of considering themselves as members of

CCC project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

CCC project - Essay Example I could have written down my ideas at the same time writing down the suggestions the other group members were voicing out. This way, I could have listened efficiently to what others were saying while keeping track of my own ideas. I want to effectively confront people when they make mistakes without causing them to be offended. I would like to accomplish this with people whom I know personally and those who I don’t know well. In this way, I can point out their mistakes to help them improve in turn, I can learn from their mistakes as well. These people include those who I already know and those who I will be acquainted with in the future. I would like to perform this skill only when it is under the appropriate and necessary situations. 1. I would not always confront others immediately after they made a mistake instead I will tell others about their mistakes in the most appropriate time or situation. This will give time for me to think of the approach I will use on the person and to give time for the person to think over what he or she has done wrong. 2. In dealing with new acquaintances or other people I don’t know well, I will take time to observe them to determine their behavior and attitude before confronting them with their mistakes. Learning how they react and interact will give me an idea on how to tell them their mistakes in the most suitable way that will not offend them. 3. For people that are older than me and whom I don’t know well, I will try my best to relate and befriend these people to easily tell them about their mistakes. Befriending these people will cause them to value my opinion and not treat me as a critic nor an enemy but a friend who cares and wants them to improve. 5. I will learn how to speak to other people about their mistakes in the best way and most appropriate way in accordance to their attitude or character. This way I

Research Papper Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Papper - Research Paper Example The manufacturing sector has also been heavily targeted and attacked by cyber terrorists and criminals. This has been done especially to access information about manufacturing processes and control process. Cyber terrorist may attack manufacturing industries systems so as to get access to the data concerning the processes and procedures used in that industry. This information may then be used elsewhere to manufacture counterfeit commodities. Cyber terrorist also attack the automated machine control processes so as to cause accidents in that particular industry. These may be politically motivated attacks. The other sector that is targeted by cyber terrorists is the health care sector. The sector has been at risk since it has not invested in cybercrime security procedures. These attacks may results into financial losses and even deaths. These cyber terrorist can access the hospital data system and for example change the medicine prescription of a patient resulting into death of the patient (Krasavin, 2004). The transport sector and the critical infrastructure of the country are also top targets of cyber terrorists. These cyber criminals can use their software to interfere with for example flight schedules in order to cause confusion in airports. Communication systems have also been attacked by cyber terrorists leading to access of vital information and confidential information of the American citizens. Cyber terrorists have as well targeted the education sector in the United States of America. This has been for example done through accessing the databases of various education institutions and changing the grades of the students or interfering with the curriculum. These terrorists have also used the internet to carrying out cyber bullying in order to intimidate students. In addition to that, students’ work and assignments have also been attacked and interfered with through spamming and other malwares. Cyber crime

CCC project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

CCC project - Essay Example I could have written down my ideas at the same time writing down the suggestions the other group members were voicing out. This way, I could have listened efficiently to what others were saying while keeping track of my own ideas. I want to effectively confront people when they make mistakes without causing them to be offended. I would like to accomplish this with people whom I know personally and those who I don’t know well. In this way, I can point out their mistakes to help them improve in turn, I can learn from their mistakes as well. These people include those who I already know and those who I will be acquainted with in the future. I would like to perform this skill only when it is under the appropriate and necessary situations. 1. I would not always confront others immediately after they made a mistake instead I will tell others about their mistakes in the most appropriate time or situation. This will give time for me to think of the approach I will use on the person and to give time for the person to think over what he or she has done wrong. 2. In dealing with new acquaintances or other people I don’t know well, I will take time to observe them to determine their behavior and attitude before confronting them with their mistakes. Learning how they react and interact will give me an idea on how to tell them their mistakes in the most suitable way that will not offend them. 3. For people that are older than me and whom I don’t know well, I will try my best to relate and befriend these people to easily tell them about their mistakes. Befriending these people will cause them to value my opinion and not treat me as a critic nor an enemy but a friend who cares and wants them to improve. 5. I will learn how to speak to other people about their mistakes in the best way and most appropriate way in accordance to their attitude or character. This way I

Governor James E. Mcgreevey of New Jersey Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Governor James E. Mcgreevey of New Jersey - Essay Example In 2001, he was elected as the governor of New Jersey and during his tenure he was able to stabilize the state budget. He maintained his endeavors in 2003 in order to promote employment and develop New Jersey on the whole. He wanted the state to become a technological and financial hub. During his tenure, McGreevey invested heavily on education and employment programs that allowed the creation of 20,000 jobs and numerous schools. Education was being promoted by building schools and encouraging students to read. His services in the field of healthcare and environmental stability have been considerable. He emphasized on clean air and water, tried to control over-development, and tried to protect the health care of the people as well as New Jersey’s natural reserves. His efforts in the field of healthcare and research resulted in the creation of many healthcare companies, institutions, and scientists. An important insurance reform was signed by McGreevey in June 2003 that altered the approach of auto insurance. His office lasted till November 15, 2004 when he resigned (National Governors Association, n.pag.) after a coarse scandal after which he admitted to being homosexual. Although McGreevey’s services contributed a lot to the state of New Jersey, his coming out as a homosexual made him the first governor to state that openly in the entire history of the US. During New Jersey’s property tax crisis, governor McGreevey announced that he had assigned a â€Å"citizens task force† to obtain a solution to the problem (Schwaneberg, n.pag.). According to the official website for the State of New Jersey, half of the state budget was allocated to property tax alleviation and a greater allocation of money on education than ever (n.pag.). According to a plan implemented by the New Jersey governor, all seniors and middle class families were relieved of property taxes. In addition, the plan allowed the power to reform the tax to shift to voters (St ate of New Jersey, n.pag.). However the skeptics were still cynical about the plan and about the commission that was entrusted to provide a solution to the crisis. According to them the property tax factors led to only few constructive outcomes. The formation of the commission was also seen as being a step to delay the action and to keep stalling it (Schwaneberg, n.pag.). Nevertheless the plan provided immediate relief to the people by utilizing the millionaire’s tax and cutting down on the state spending (State of New Jersey, n.pag.). Another significant work done by the New Jersey governor was to prioritize education. As a result, research was promoted in various areas, particularly biotechnology and other technological disciplines. An initiative began in order to improve the standards at school. This was done by increasing the requirements for new teachers and removing those that were inefficient. Computers, internet and other facilities were installed in schools to enhanc e the curriculum. Efforts were also made to train teachers, instill character education in schools, and preventing abuse by starting relevant programs. The overall standards of teaching and education were raised so as to enable New Jersey children to receive a high-standard education (On The Issues, n.pag.). Apart from this, $113 million was allocated to higher education to fund a stem cell research that was being conducted by the Rutgers University and the

Cost Club Week Essay Example for Free

Cost Club Week Essay The issues against discharging an employee with any reason can be very harmful to any business. This opens the door for a lawsuit to any organization because, an ex-employee could file a lawsuit against the employer for alleging that they had been discharged wrongfully. The civil right law act in 1964 provides protection to the employees against wrongfully discharge. This describe that companies cannot terminate their employees basis of race, gender, skin, religion, color etc, (Employment law for business, 2007)†.) For example, if their at-will relationship exists between the employee and employer this does not mean that employer may terminate the employee, in a discriminatory manner. This mean the organization has to follow the legal principles before discharging their employee. There are so many laws that protect the individuals even though we are an, at- will state. The Federal anti-discrimination law prevents employees from wrongful discharge by the employer (Lawson, 1998)†. This scenario does not say that the employees were not let go due to the basis of any reason. This lawsuit against the organization for wrongful discharge could be very risky for the Cost Club since there were no reasons for terminating their employees. Reduction in Employee Costs There are many ways to reduce company cost. One thing a company can do is to outsource their HR. This will help reduce the cost of the employee benefits  program by bring in an outside company like GNA Partners. The GNA Partners have many ways to save the company money but, may bring cost to the workers. The GNA Partners provide negotiation insurance rates, which the plan cost are determined by what age group the employees fall into. Next the company can choose higher deductible plans, which this reduces, the cost of benefits plan. †¢ The business can offer robust benefits package by making their employees contribute. †¢ Using different types of workers like temporary workers, contract employee, part-time employees, employees and, non-employees work hours. These job types can be helpful to accomplish the seasonal demand of the organizations plus can cause the increase within the organizational performance. The organization knows all different categories of workers who can hire to save money for definite and indefinite period. Organization understands that temporary workers directly reports to the employer and receive their reimbursement from the company. When a company hires a contract employee, temporary and, part-time employee they know that they do not have to pay this employee benefits or high rates. Like vacation, sick, and part-time workers are usually define a workers, who have shorter working hours other fulltime workers. The rules, policies and, procedures for the part-time employee are not the same as the regular employees but quite different from the temporary workers† (Part Time and Temporary Employees, 2009). According to â€Å"Bennett-Alexander, Hartman, â€Å"by hiring independent contractors, the cost of overtime is eliminated (the federal wage and hour laws do not apply to independent contractors) and the employer is able to avoid any work-related expenses, su ch as tools, training, or traveling. The employer is also guaranteed satisfactory performance of the job for which the contractor was hired because it is the contractor’s contractual obligation to adequately perform the contract with the employer, while the employee is generally able to quit without incurring liability (Employment law for business, 2007)†. For example, the company manage is an employees work who sets an employee’s schedule, along with deciding the method the employee uses to perform their work. An independent contractor is a person who provides particular services to an organization. Whether it be a short or long-term assignment. This is very effective low cost and saving the companying money because; temporary, contract or part-time employment arrangements provides several benefits to any business. Injury and Damages According to Tort Law, the Cost Club will be liable for the misconduct of employees with the customers. Tort laws are laws that offer remedies to individuals harmed by the unreasonable actions of others. Tort claims usually involve state law and are based on the legal premise that individuals are liable for the consequences of their conduct if it results in injury to others (McCarthy Cambron-McCabe, 1992). Tort laws involve civil suits, which are actions brought to protect an individual’s private rights. The second situation, the employee is liable for physical harm to the customers’ property. Therefore, the company who hires the employee will be held liable for their employees negligent. The last situation, the business will not be liable for the acts of a real estate agent, because, the real estate agent is not controlled by the business. Therefore, the Cost Club should let their customers know they, are not responsible or that the real estate agent is an independent and organization contractors and that they have no control on his or her activities so, Cost Club will not be liable for the tort of him or her (Tort Liability Basics: Strict, Vicarious, and Joint Liability, 1999). Resolving Disagreement Processes Resolving disagreement between company and its employees, the can †¢ Set up a subject box  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ Have a meeting once a week with the manager, and employees to discuss the problem that may arise between co-workers and managers. †¢ Includes third party as the mediator between employees and company. †¢ Grievance procedure, corporate due process, mediation etc., †¢ Clear as the formal complaint by the employees that they are behaved wrongly by the management decisions (Open door policy) These steps can be very effective to resolve between most companies’ problem. Which, if not settled could cause a big problem like violation of law, and just a perception of unfair treatment by the employees and managers. This method has to be effective in order to achieve long-term success and to facilitate and to accommodate between the employees and the company. Employment Law Concepts for Selection Employment law concepts for selection would include several legal implications. According to Bennett-Alexander, Hartman, â€Å"the Civil Rights  Act 1964 prohibits the employers from discrimination among the potential employees on the basis of race, gender, color, region etc. in its recruitment and selection process. The next step is once the employee is hired, the company should make sure they follow steps are, training, appraising, compensating, and implementing employment decisions that determine such things as promotions, transfers, and layoffs† The selection procedure should also be job related and concern with the business necessity. The company should always follow the State HR Laws, and all the employees should be treated fairly and equally (Employment Tests and Selection Procedures, 2008). The Age Discrimination in Employment Act should also be considered in the selection procedure by the management. Reference: Beatty, J.F. Samuelson, S.S. (2009). Introduction to Business Law (3rd ed.). Cengage Learning. Bennett-Alexander, D. D. Hartman, P. L. (2007). Employment law for business (5th ed.). New York: McGraw–Hill. Retrieved October 29, 2012 from University of Phoenix, rEsource. Part Time and Temporary Employees. (2009). Retrieved October 29, 2012 from http://employment.findlaw.com/employment/employment-employee-overview/employment-

Merchant Of Venice - Plot Structure :: Free Merchant of Venice Essays

Show how the plot of ‘The Merchant of Venice’ is apparently fanciful but in reality exactingly structured. â€Å"The Merchant of Venice is a fairy tale. There is no more reality in Shylock’s bond and the Lord of Belmont’s will than in Jack and the Beanstalk.† H. Granville-Barker, in Prefaces to Shakespeare. This is one way of looking at the play, reading it or enjoying the performance. But it can be a contradiction to our actual feelings about this complex play. ‘The Merchant of Venice’ might appear to be a romantic tale without much logic but that would be a superficial interpretation. Portia’s father may have raised our concerns in taking away her freedom to choose her beloved; Shylock’s bond and those conditions may violate most legal codes; but the way the play moves takes one beyond these doubts and objections. In ‘The Merchant of Venice’ Shakespeare creates an interesting contrast between the mercantile and tumultuous city of Venice and the peaceful and gracious world of Belmont. The striking difference between these two settings helps to capture and maintain our attention. There are differences in the value of systems of the people belonging to the two different cities. The contrast between Venice and Belmont is that one place is where money is made and the other where it is spent. One is characterised by light and sunshine and the other by moonlight and music. Wealth is described in almost sensuous terms like when Salerio says â€Å"†¦touching but my gentle vessel’s side†¦Enrobe the roaring waters with my silks.† And in an ironic way later love is talked about in commercial terms. Another contrast is presented when the scenes shift from Venice to Belmont. When we hear of Shylock’s hatred and his terms of the bond, our anxiety builds. But then the play moves on to Belmont and the mood shifts from a sort of harshness and tension to a world of romance and graciousness. The most striking contrast is between the court room scene in Act IV and the opening scene of Act V which takes place on a starlit, romantic night in Belmont. Venice could also be a sort of â€Å"a disguise† for London. Venice is â€Å"poised between Christians† on one hand whose acquisitive practices do not match up with their protestations against usury and Jews on the other whose dealings rest on the â€Å"double pillars of expediency and Levitical Law† Shylock’s attitude to money is contrasted with that of the Christians. Merchant Of Venice - Plot Structure :: Free Merchant of Venice Essays Show how the plot of ‘The Merchant of Venice’ is apparently fanciful but in reality exactingly structured. â€Å"The Merchant of Venice is a fairy tale. There is no more reality in Shylock’s bond and the Lord of Belmont’s will than in Jack and the Beanstalk.† H. Granville-Barker, in Prefaces to Shakespeare. This is one way of looking at the play, reading it or enjoying the performance. But it can be a contradiction to our actual feelings about this complex play. ‘The Merchant of Venice’ might appear to be a romantic tale without much logic but that would be a superficial interpretation. Portia’s father may have raised our concerns in taking away her freedom to choose her beloved; Shylock’s bond and those conditions may violate most legal codes; but the way the play moves takes one beyond these doubts and objections. In ‘The Merchant of Venice’ Shakespeare creates an interesting contrast between the mercantile and tumultuous city of Venice and the peaceful and gracious world of Belmont. The striking difference between these two settings helps to capture and maintain our attention. There are differences in the value of systems of the people belonging to the two different cities. The contrast between Venice and Belmont is that one place is where money is made and the other where it is spent. One is characterised by light and sunshine and the other by moonlight and music. Wealth is described in almost sensuous terms like when Salerio says â€Å"†¦touching but my gentle vessel’s side†¦Enrobe the roaring waters with my silks.† And in an ironic way later love is talked about in commercial terms. Another contrast is presented when the scenes shift from Venice to Belmont. When we hear of Shylock’s hatred and his terms of the bond, our anxiety builds. But then the play moves on to Belmont and the mood shifts from a sort of harshness and tension to a world of romance and graciousness. The most striking contrast is between the court room scene in Act IV and the opening scene of Act V which takes place on a starlit, romantic night in Belmont. Venice could also be a sort of â€Å"a disguise† for London. Venice is â€Å"poised between Christians† on one hand whose acquisitive practices do not match up with their protestations against usury and Jews on the other whose dealings rest on the â€Å"double pillars of expediency and Levitical Law† Shylock’s attitude to money is contrasted with that of the Christians.

Ecstasy :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Ecstasy† MDMA also, known as ecstasy, has killed at least 15 young people and doctors are extremely concerned with it’s long term effect from continued usage. The usage of ecstasy increases every year and is usually taken by teenagers at clubs. But, more importantly the people taking this drug are young and that has to be a concern. Many of the drug users have no idea what there in for. Many don’t know that it only takes one pill to ruin a lifetime. Like any drug once it enters the human body, eventually the brain comes in contact with it. That’s when the psychological and physical effects come into action. MDMA is currently classified as a Schedule I substance. Until 1985, MDMA was used extensively by psychiatrists and psychologists to help people with certain psychological and emotional difficulties. Although it was said to be a aphrodisiac drug there is no evidence to prove it. Many of those who take ecstasy say it brings them a feeling of expansive well being. As the drug comes in contact with the brain, which is the control center for all thoughts, the neurotransmitter called serotonin is alerted. Serotonin controls our sensations of hunger, fatigue and depression. If serotonin increases in a great amount, that’s when the user feels satisfied and no guilt for decision on taking the drug. Ecstasy is taken in the form of pills, though there are different types of pills. According to some sources, six new designs are produced every month. Some include red and black capsules, known as â€Å"Dennis the Menace†, â€Å"White Doves†, and â€Å"Hamburgers†. An Ecstasy high can last from six to 24 hours, with the average â€Å"trip† lasting only about three to four hours. Ecstasy has the tendency to break down barriers between therapists and patients, lovers, and family members. Many of the risk user’s face with MDMA are similar to those of cocaine. Ecstasy causes many psychological difficulties, including confusion, depression, sleep problems, drug craving, severe anxiety, and paranoia-during and sometimes weeks after taking MDMA. Ecstasy causes confusion because it’s usually taken at a club where a lot of people attend and loud music is played. Ecstasy is a tolerant drug. In order to get the same effects after a period of time; the user needs to increase the dosage. MDMA has also shown some cases of liver damage and heart attacks. Although research has not yielded evidence of Ecstasy-induced brain damage in humans, heavy administration of the drug has produced neurological damage in rats and monkeys.

Hamlet Act Iv Summaries and Laertes Analysis

Hamlet Act IV Scene 1 Summary:After Gertrude's conversation with Hamlet, Gertrude is startled and worried, so she goes to Claudius while he is speaking to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. After Rosencrantz and Guildenstern leave, Claudius asks Gertrude how Hamlet was, and Gertrude replies that he is as â€Å"Mad as the sea and wind when both contend/ Which is the mightier† (IV. 1. 7-8). Gertrude then tells Claudius that Hamlet has killed Polonius, and Claudius notes that if it had been him behind the curtains, Hamlet would have killed him.Claudius then tells Gertrude that they must send Hamlet to England right away and find a way to explain Hamlet's act. He then calls for Rosencrantz and Guildenstern again and tells them about the murder and tells them to find Hamlet. Hamlet Act IV Scene 2 Summary:In Act IV Scene 2, Hamlet has just disposed of Polonius's body. Shortly after, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern enter and ask Hamlet what he has done with the body. They tell him that they want to bury him in the chapel. Hamlet refuses to answer them and instead accuses them of being spies for Claudius.Finally, Hamlet agrees to go with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to Claudius. Hamlet Act IV Scene 3 Summary: In Act IV Scene 3, Claudius speaks to a group of two or three other people about the murder of Polonius and how he plans to send Hamlet to England because he is too dangerous. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern then enter with Hamlet, who says that Polonius is at a supper in which he is being eaten by worms. Finally, Hamlet admits that Polonius's body is under the stairs in the lobby, so Claudius tells his attendants to go find the body.The King then tells Hamlet that he must leave for England immediately, and Hamlet, pleased, leaves. When Claudius is alone, he says that he hopes that England will put Hamlet to death. Grace Miao Ms. Gordon European Literature 18th November, 2012 Hamlet Act IV Scene 4 Summary: In Act IV Scene 4, Fortinbras leads his army to Poland. He tel ls the Captain to go ask the Danish King if they may travel through Denmark safely. On the way to the King Claudius, the Captain meets Hamlet, Rosencrantz, and Guildenstern. Hamlet asks what the army is doing and who it belongs to.The Captain replies that the army belongs to Prince Fortinbras of Norway and that they are heading to Poland to attack the Poles. When Hamlet asked what the purpose of the attack is, the Captain replied that it was over â€Å"a little patch of ground/ That hath in it no profit but the name† (IV. 4. 19-20). Hamlet becomes shocked that a battle could be fought over something so insignificant and notes that his revenge on Claudius gives him more to gain than Fortinbras would gain from the land. Hamlet becomes angry with himself for giving up on his revenge and declares that his thoughts will be bloody or else they will be worth nothing.Hamlet Act IV Scene 5 Summary:In Act IV Scene 5, Gertrude says to a gentleman and Horatio that she does not wish to sp eak to Ophelia; however, Horatio tells her that Ophelia should be pitied because her grief has made her mad, so Gertrude finally agrees. When Ophelia enters, she is singing. When Claudius enters, he says that Ophelia's grief is caused by the death of her father and that many other people have been disturbed and suspicious of Polonius's death. He also says that Laertes has sailed back to Denmark secretly. Laertes then enters with a mob of people who call him lord and say that he will be king.Laertes is furious and exclaims that he will avenge his father's death. When Ophelia, still mad, enters again, Laertes becomes furious again. Claudius tries to calm Laertes down and tells him that he did not kill Polonius and that Laertes should take revenge on the correct person. Claudius then manages to convince Laertes to listen to his version ceof Polonius's death. Grace Miao Ms. Gordon European Literature 18th November, 2012 Laertes' Character Analysis Act IV Scene 5 1. In order for an actor to understand Laertes better in Act IV Scene 5, the actor must understand how Laertes acts as a foil for Hamlet.In this scene Laertes, like Hamlet, has a father's death to avenge. The difference, however, is that Laertes is active and does not think deeply about the method whereas Hamlet was passive and a man of thought. (IV. 5. 151-154). 2. Laertes' motivation and objective in this scene is to avenge his father's death by murdering whoever killed Polonius because he is furious over his father's death and Ophelia's insane state of mind. (IV. 5. 237-242). 3. Laertes is furious that his father has been murdered. (IV. 5. 151-154). He is also extremely angry over the fact that Ophelia has gone mad because of grief. (IV. 5. 78-187). 4. When Laertes storms in demanding for his father, Claudius attempts to calm him down by replying that Polonius is dead. (IV. 5. 145). Gertrude tries to soothe Laertes by replying that Claudius did not kill him. (IV. 5. 146). 5. Laertes affects the events i n Act IV Scene 5 by setting the play up for the scene in which most of the action will take place. He is prepared to murder whoever killed his father and made his sister insane. (IV. 5. 237-242). He is affected by the events of the scene because he is told that his father is dead and then sees his sister wander in acting mad. This makes him furious. . Laertes acts as a foil to Hamlet in this scene because both have a father's death to avenge; however, Laertes is a man of action while Hamlet is a man of thought. The second Laertes realized that his father was dead, he becomes furious and vows to take bloody revenge. Hamlet, on the other hand, was passive and depressed after he realized that his father was dead. It also took Hamlet a lot longer to be ready to take revenge. (IV. 5. 151-154). 7. When we saw Laertes last, he was calmer. Laertes has changed in that in this scene, he is angry over the death of his father and the insane state of mind of his sister. IV. 5. 149-151). This cha nge helps set the action of the play in motion because Laertes is planning to take revenge for his father's death. 8. This act makes me wonder how Laertes will react when he realizes that it was Hamlet who murdered his father because earlier in the play, Laertes told Ophelia to be careful of Hamlet. In this act, Hamlet also indirectly made Ophelia go mad because of grief, so Laertes may react stronger because it was Hamlet's doing. 9. When Laertes says, â€Å"To hell, allegiance! Vows, to the blackest devil! / Conscience and grace, to the profoundest pit! I dare damnation.To this point I stand,/ That both the worlds I give to negligence,/ Let come what comes, only I'll be revenged/ Most throughly for my father† (IV. 5. 149-154), it demonstrates the difference between Laertes and Hamlet because this line accentuates how Laertes is a man of action. Immediately, Laertes declares that he will avenge his father's murder while Hamlet went through a long period of depression before he finally decided to take action. Grace Miao Ms. Gordon European Literature 19th November, 2012 Hamlet Act IV Scene 6 Summary: In Act IV Scene 6, Horatio meets two sailors who were entrusted with a letter from Hamlet.In the letter, Hamlet writes that his ship has been captured by pirates who then brought him back to Denmark. Hamlet then tells Horatio to escort the sailors to the King and Queen because they have messages for them as well. He then says that he has a lot to tell Horatio about Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. After reading the letter, Horatio brings the sailors to Claudius and then goes with them to find Hamlet, who is revealed to be in the countryside near the castle. Hamlet Act IV Scene 7 Summary:In Act IV Scene 7, Claudius and Laertes discuss Polonius's murder. Claudius tells Laertes that Claudius simply buried Polonius secretly.He then explains to Laertes that he did not punish Hamlet for the murder because Gertrude and the citizens like Hamlet, and he does not wish t o upset them as King. A messenger then enters to give Claudius a letter from Hamlet that stated that Hamlet was returning to Denmark. Claudius and Laertes then begin planning Laertes's revenge for his father's death. Claudius remembers how Hamlet had been jealous of Laertes's sword skills, so he tells Laertes to challenge Hamlet to a duel. During the duel, Laertes will use a sharpened sword rather than the traditional dull sword.Laertes is also going to put poison at the end of the sword so that a single scratch from it would kill Hamlet. Claudius then comes up with a back-up plan in which if Hamlet wins, Claudius will give Hamlet a goblet of poisoned wine to celebrate. After this, Gertrude enters and tells them that Ophelia has drowned in a river due to her insane state of mind. Grace Miao Mrs. Gordon European Literature 24th November, 2012 Laertes's Character Analysis Act IV Scene 7 1. In order for an actor to understand Laertes better, he must understand the anger that Laertes fe els towards Hamlet for murdering his father.Because of this, the actor must understand how Laertes felt extremely happy to hear that Hamlet was returning home. (IV. 7. 60-63). He must also understand the grief and rage that must have been going through Laertes when he was told that Ophelia had drowned in a river due to her grief. (IV. 7. 211-217). 2. In Act IV Scene 7, Laertes's objective is to murder Hamlet. Throughout most of the scene, Laertes was plotting his revenge with Claudius. The motivation behind his objective is the death of his father. He wishes to take revenge on whoever murdered his father and caused his sister to go mad. IV. 7. 159-168). 3. Laertes feels extremely happy that Hamlet is returning to Denmark because it allows him to take his revenge for his father earlier. (IV. 7. 60-63). When he finds out that his sister drowned in a river due to grief, however, he becomes saddened and angry again, and possibly even more intent on taking revenge than before. (IV. 7. 15 9-168). 4. Claudius treats Laertes carefully and helps Laertes plot his revenge because he also wants to kill Hamlet. He suggests that Laertes tempt Hamlet into a sword duel, thus providing Laertes a chance to kill Hamlet.He also prepares a backup plan in which he will poison a cup of wine in case Hamlet wins. (IV. 7. 108-120). Laertes appears to have on particular feeling towards Claudius, but he feels extremely angry towards Hamlet and is happy that Hamlet is returning early because he can now take revenge earlier than previously planned. (IV. 7. 60-63). 5. Laertes plans his revenge for his father's death in this scene. This helps build up most of the action that will take place in the next act. This also prepares many of the other characters for their deaths.Laertes is affected by events in this scene because Hamlet's arrival to Denmark helps set his plan in motion earlier than planned. (IV. 7. 60-63). Ophelia's death also increases his anger towards Hamlet and motivation for rev enge. (IV. 7. 211-217). 6. This scene helps portray Laertes as a foil for Hamlet because it took Hamlet an extremely long time to be ready to take revenge for his father's death, whereas Laertes was ready to kill Hamlet even without a true plan. Laertes was so willing to kill Hamlet whenever possible that he was even willing to kill Hamlet in church. (IV. 7. 143). 7.There was not a significant change in Laretes in this scene as compared to scene 5 because in both scenes, Laertes' was extremely angry over his father's death. In this scene, however, Laertes found out who killed his father and is now ready to take revenge. Also, Laertes is further saddened in this scene due to Ophelia's death. (IV. 7. 211-217). 8. This act makes me wonder if Laertes will react even stronger towards Hamlet because Hamlet indirectly caused Ophelia's death as well. (IV. 7. 211-217). I also wonder how Laertes feels about Claudius's willingness to help him plot out his revenge.I wonder if Laertes feels susp icious about it at all or if he is blinded by his anger and need for revenge. 9. When Laertes answered Claudius's question of how he plans to kill Hamlet by saying, â€Å"To cut his throat i' th' church† (IV. 7. 144), it is revealed how Laertes is truly a man of action as compared to Hamlet because Laertes is so furious over his father's death that he is willing to kill Hamlet in such a sacred place. This supports the idea that Laertes is a foil for Hamlet because Hamlet went through a stage of depression before he was ready to plan his revenge.Another line that further supports the idea of Laertes acting as a foil for Hamlet is when Laertes says, â€Å"I am lost in it, my lord. But let him come. / It warms the very sickness in my heart/ That I [shall] live and tell him to his teeth/ â€Å"Thus didst thou† (IV. 7. 60-63). By saying this, Laertes is desplaying his happiness over the fact that Hamlet is returning early. This shows that Laertes is a man of action, not a man of thought, because he simply cares about the fact that he gets to complete his revenge earlier than originally planned.

Comparative and Contrast

Compare and contrast essay How far will you go for the person that you love? This is the question that most mates want to know before they go further with their partner. Different people have different answers and reasons for this question. Even between cupid and psyche & Orpheus and Eurydice. These two Greek stories have the same topic, which is â€Å"how far will you go for the person that you love†.These love stories are different in terms of theme until the story itself. These two stories are actually easy to understand but they have similarities and differences between them. First lets discuss about similarities; they are both a story about love and also how much they love their partner and how far would they go for the person that they love, even if the way how to get back their partner is different but the main topic of the story is still the same.They did several things to get their partners back, even if in the end of the story is not always them living in the wor ld but still in the end of these stories they went back together. The person who’s trying to get back their partner in these stories also get second chances in completing their journey, they both failed because of curiosity. Both of them are so impatient and curious so that’s the reason why they fail. Even if there’s a lot of similarities already but there are also differences in this story.Psyche was so curious and that she opened the beauty secret box and by that it made her work wasted, she wasn’t able to give back the box to Aphrodite so she failed while in the other tory Orpheus was able to get Eurydice back but then he was so impatient and curious if Eurydice is still with her or not so she looked back and then Eurydice was sent back to the underworld. There are different gods who impact the story, in the story cupid and psyche Aphrodite is the one who impact the story but in the story Orpheus and Eurydice Hades and Persephone are the two gods who i s included.But above all the way how they get back their partner is the sweetest in the first story Aphrodite gave a lot of things for psyche to do and she really did everything to get cupid back while Orpheus went to the underworld to get Eurydice back, these two jobs that they did is very tiring and it needs a lot of efforts but they still do it for their partners just to get them back. Between the two stories, it shows how some people actually care so much about their partner and even the would do the hardest job that could be possible just to get them back.

Traditional Healing System

A PROPOSED APPLICATION OF ETHNOMEDICAL MODELS TO TRADITIONAL HEALING SYSTEMS Stanley Kipper Ethnomedicine has become a topic of intensive study in recent years due, in part, to the work of the World Health Organization and other groups attempting to facilitate cooperation between indigenous practitioners and those trained in Western allopathic biomedicine.This chapter describes two ethnomedical systems (the North American Navajo tradition and the South American Peruvian Pachakuti curanderismo) in terms of two different models, one designed by Siegler and Osmond (1974), and one designed by a task force of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). Each of these indigenous systems are found to be comprehensive, covering each facet of the models, and pointing the way for possible collaboration between allopathic biomedicine and various indigenous systems of healing, a project that has accelerated due to public demand (Iljas, 2006, p. 90). The term â€Å"ethnomedicine† refers to the comparative study of indigenous (or traditional) medical systems. Typical ethnomedical topics include causes of sickness, medical practitioners and their roles, and specific treatments utilized. The explosion of ethnomedical literature has been stimulated by an increased awareness of the consequences of the forced displacement and/or acculturation of indigenous peoples, the recognition of indigenous health concepts as a means of maintaining ethnic identities, and the search for new medical treatments and technologies.In addition, Kleinman (1995) finds ethnographic studies an â€Å"appropriate means of representing pluralism†¦ and of drawing upon those aspects of health and suffering to resist the positivism, the reductionism, and the naturalism that biomedicine and, regrettably, the wider society privilege†(p. 195). In his exhaustive study of cross-cultural practices, Torrey (1986) concluded that effective treatment inevitably contains one or more of four fundame ntal principles: 1. A shared world view that makes the diagnosis or naming process possible; 2.Certain personal qualities of the practitioner that appear to facilitate the patient's recovery; 3. Positive patient expectations that assist recovery; 4. A sense of mastery that empowers the patient. If a traditional medical system yields treatment outcomes that its society deems effective, it is worthy of consideration by allopathic biomedical investigators, especially those who are aware of the fact that less than 20 percent of the world’s population are serviced by allopathic biomedicine (Mahler, 1977; Freeman, 2004; O’Connor, 1995).However, what is considered to be â€Å"effective† varies from society to society (Krippner, 2002). Allopathic biomedicine places its emphasis upon â€Å"curing† (removing the symptoms of an ailment and restoring a patient to health), while traditional medicine focuses upon â€Å"healing† (attaining wholeness of body, mind , emotions, and/or spirit). Some patients might be incapable of being â€Å"cured† because their sickness is terminal. Yet those same patients could be â€Å"healed† mentally, emotionally, and/or spiritually as a result of the practitioner’s encouragement to review their life, to find meaning in it, and to become reconciled to death.Those who have been â€Å"cured,† on the other hand, may be taught procedures that will prevent a relapse or recurrence of their symptoms. An emphasis upon prevention is a standard aspect of traditional medicine, and is becoming an important part of biomedicine as well (Freeman, 2004; Krippner & Welch, 1992). A differentiation can also be made between â€Å"disease† and â€Å"illness. † From either the biomedical or the ethnomedical point of view, one can conceptualize â€Å"disease† as a mechanical difficulty of the body resulting from injury or infection, or from an organism’s imbalance with its e nvironment. Illness,† however, is a broader term implying dysfunctional behavior, mood disorders, or inappropriate thoughts and feelings. These behaviors, moods, thoughts, and feelings can accompany an injury, infection, or imbalance—or can exist without them. Thus, one may refer to a â€Å"diseased brain† rather than an â€Å"ill brain,† but use the phrase of â€Å"mental illness† rather than of â€Å"mental disease. † Cassell (1979) goes so far as to claim that allopathic biomedicine treats disease but not illness; â€Å"physicians are trained to practice a technological medicine in which disease is their sole concern and in which technology is their only weapon† (p. 8). Healing models The Siegler-Osmond Model Comparisons between biomedicine and ethnomedicine can be made utilizing hypothetical structures such as the 12-faceted model proposed by Siegler and Osmond (1974). In the social and behavioral sciences, a â€Å"model† is an explicit or implicit explanatory structure that underlies a set of organized group behaviors. Their use in science attempts to improve understanding of the process they represent. Models have been constructed to describe human conflict, competition, and cooperation.Models have been proposed to explain mental illness, personality dynamics, and family interactions. I have modified the Siegler-Osmond model, making it applicable to both â€Å"physical† and â€Å"mental† disorders, although traditional practitioners usually do not differentiate between the two. The utility of the Siegler-Osmond model can be demonstrated by comparing a shamanic medical model, an eclectic folk healing model, and the allopathic biomedical model on 12 dimensions: 1. Diagnosis 2. Etiology 3. Patient’s behaviour 4. Treatment 5. Prognosis . Death and suicide 7. Function of the institution 8. Personnel 9. Rights and duties of the patient 10. Rights and duties of the family 11. Rights and duties of the society 12. Goal of the model. The Navaho Indian healing model The Navaho healing system serves as an example of the application of the Siegler and Osmond model. The term â€Å"Navaho† (or â€Å"Navajo†) is used by anthropologists to refer to the largest Native American tribe in the United States; the Navaho reservation in the south west part of the country comprises 16 million acres.The word â€Å"Navaho† is derived from the Spanish term for â€Å"people with big fields,† but in their own language, they call themselves the Dineh people. They are members of the southern Athapaskan linguistic group and occupy plateau areas of north eastern Arizona, overlapping into New Mexico and Utah. Geertz (1973) points out that the entire lifestyle of a culture is built upon its mythic view of â€Å"reality. † The Navaho ethic values â€Å"calm deliberativeness, untiring persistence, and dignified caution† and the Navahos view nature as â⠂¬Å"tremendously powerful, mechanically regular, and highly dangerous† (p. 30). While the dominant U. S. culture attempts to â€Å"tame nature,† the Navaho worldview seeks to live in respectful harmony with it. Theories of sickness and methods of healing make up a large part of this great counterpoint focused on harmony: The stricken patient is given a vocabulary in terms of which to grasp the nature of his or her distress and relate it to the wider world (Geertz, 1973), providing an explanation, and converting energy into a form that can heal.Sandner (1979) has identified the most important values in Navaho mythology as the acquisition of supernatural power (notably for the maintenance of health), the preservation of harmony in family relationships, and the achievement of adult status. However, this status operates in tandem with cooperation with and respect for other family, clan, and community members. The diagnosis is made by the Navaho diagnostician in consultation with the patient and the patient's family, all of whom work together in determining the cause of sickness.The role of the medicine man in diagnosis is usually limited, as he later carries out instructions given by the diviner (Sandner, 1979). Navahos have constructed three major diagnostic categories of mental illness. â€Å"Moth craziness† is characterized by fits of uncontrolled behavior (e. g. , jumping into the fire like a moth), rage, violence, and convulsions; it is attributed to incestual activities. â€Å"Crazy violence† has some of the same external manifestations as â€Å"moth craziness† but is due to alcoholism. â€Å"Ghost sickness,† ascribed to sorcery, manifests in nightmares, loss of appetite, dizziness, confusion, panic, and extreme anxiety.When someone knowingly or accidentally breaches taboos or offends dangerous powers, the natural order of the universe is ruptured and â€Å"contamination† or â€Å"infection† occurs that must be redressed. Etiology is seen as the intrusion of a harmful agent that destroys the natural harmony between individuals and their surroundings, especially in circumstances of exposure to lightning, whirlwinds, or such animals as bear, deer, coyotes, porcupines, snakes, and eagles that are inappropriately trapped, killed, or eaten.Sometimes these harmful agents appear in frightening, ominous dreams. Contact with spirits of the dead is especially hazardous, as is sorcery. The diviner, the medicine man, the patient, and the patient’s family work together in determining the cause of sickness (Sander, 1979). The patient's behavior determines what type of â€Å"Chant Way† will be utilized in his or her treatment. A person who is unable to resolve grief, who harbors fears of accidents, and who speaks of chest pains usually will be told to have an â€Å"Evil Way† ceremony.The patient's dreams are important as a diagnostic aid; the most ominous dreams are those of being burned, falling off a cliff, and drowning; dreams of dead relatives are especially portentous. During treatment, the Navaho hataalii (or â€Å"singing† shaman) utilizes a number of therapeutic procedures, most notably one or more of the 10 basic â€Å"Chant Ways† and their accompanying sand paintings. These are complex rituals that center on cultural myths in which heroes or heroines once journeyed to spiritual realms to acquire special knowledge. The symptoms for which a given chant is prescribed are based on connections with the specific chant myth.For example, the â€Å"Hail Way† is prescribed for muscular tiredness and soreness because the hero, Rain Boy, suffered from these symptoms when he was attacked by his enemies; the â€Å"Big Star Way† protects the patient against the powerful influences of the stars and the dangers of the night. The â€Å"Night Way† is said to be useful for blindness, deafness, and mental illness because the â₠¬Å"Night Way† hero confronted each of these dangers. The â€Å"Beauty Way† is used for rheumatism, sore throats, digestive and urinary problems, and skin diseases—difficulties faced by the chant hero.Ritual chanting takes a multi-modal approach that contributes to its effectiveness. The repetitive nature and mythic content is easily deciphered and often repeated at appropriate times by those patients well-versed in tribal mythology. According to Sandner (1979): â€Å"The visual images of the sand paintings and the body painting, the audible recitation of prayers and songs, the touch of the prayer sticks and the hands of the medicine man, the taste of the ceremonial musk and herbal medicines, and the smell of the chant incense—all combine to convey the power of the chant to the patient† (p. 15). The hataalii, among the Navahos a male practitioner, usually displays a highly developed dramatic sense in carrying out the chant but generally avoids the cl ever sleight of hand effects used by many other cultural healing practitioners to demonstrate their abilities to the community. The chant is considered by Sandner to facilitate suggestibility. It shifts attention through repetitive singing and the use of culture-specific mythic themes.These activities prepare participants for a lengthy healing ceremony that may involve mythic images and narratives enacted in purification rites or executed in â€Å"sand paintings† composed of sand, seeds, charcoal, and flowers. Some paintings, such as those used in a â€Å"Blessing Way,† are crafted from such ingredients as corn meal, flower petals, and charcoal. From a psychological perspective, the patients â€Å"translate† these â€Å"symbols† and â€Å"metaphors† as they sit on the painting, but from their own perspective, they are interacting with some of the basic forces and energies of nature.Six steps comprise the typical â€Å"Chant Way† ritual: prep aration (in which the patient is â€Å"purified†), presentation of the patient to the healing spirits, evocation of these spirits to the place of the ceremony, identification of the patients with a positive mythic theme, transformation of the patients into a condition where ordinary and mythic time and space merge, and release from the mythic world and return to the everyday world where past transgressions are confessed, where new learnings are assimilated, and where life changes are brought to fruition.The hataalii’s performance empowers the patient by creating an alternative domain of consciousness—a â€Å"mythic reality†Ã¢â‚¬â€through the use of chants, dances, and songs (often accompanied by drums and rattles), masked dancers, purifications (e. g. , sweat baths, emetics, fumigants, lotions, herbal medicines, ritual bathing, sexual abstinence), and sand paintings. Within the context of this â€Å"mythic reality,† especially as made visible in t he designs constructed in sand by the hataalii, the patient is taken into â€Å"sacred time† and is able to bring a total attentiveness to the healing ritual.The patient follows a specific regimen for the next four days to protect members of the community from his or her newly acquired powers. The role of the community is important in another way; the chants are attended by large numbers of people, many of whom might be asked to participate. This type of participation appears to increase the patients’ sense of personal power, magnify their imagination as they attend to the chants, providing social reinforcement and increased motivation. The mentation of the practitioner, the patient, and the community may all be affected by the ceremony.The hataalii is dusted with the decorated sand, and his patients claim to feel the power emanating from the painting. This procedure resembles the enhancement of imagination common to several hypnotic procedures, and is probably further augmented by the repetitive chanting. In addition to the â€Å"Chant Way,† there are other rituals used by the hataalii, one of which is a prayer session. For example, sacred corn pollen may be sacrificed during a time of prayer in an attempt to please the spirits needed to heal the patient: This ritual must be performed perfectly and behind locked doors, often at the patient’s home.The setting for treatment usually is the Hogan, a specially constructed octagon with log walls, sealed with mud adobe. The door opens to the East, and a hole in the center of the domed ceiling lets the smoke out. Men sit on the North, women and children on the South; the sand painting occupies most of the floor, and the patient sits in the center with family and friends nearby. The door to the darkened Hogan is fastened to prevent the prayer from escaping. Sharpened flints are used to expel the evil from both the patient and the Hogan.These procedures reduce the patient's symptoms at the s ame time as they stabilize the social and emotional condition of the community. For example, the hataalii instructs the family to make elaborate preparations for their forthcoming â€Å"house call. † Upon arriving, the patients are told that the prognosis is excellent, thus fostering positive expectations (Torrey, 1986). The most important people in the patient's life often join in the prayers, reaffirming the belief that the patient will recover.Prognosis, to a large degree, depends upon the attitude of the patient. A Navaho practitioner told Sandner (1979): â€Å"If the patient really has confidence in me, then he gets cured†¦. If a person gets bitten by a snake, for example, certain prayers and songs can be used, but if the patient doesn’t have enough confidence, then the cure won't work† (pp. 17 – 18). Premature death and suicide are attributed to sorcery, the return of the dead, or to the presence of outsiders.Kluckhohn (Kluckhohn & Leighton, 19 62) noted that funeral rituals are designed to prevent or discourage dead persons from returning to threaten their relatives. The fear of spirit possession is connected with the fear of ghosts, spirits, and the dead. High suicide rates are associated with Navaho communities marked by loss of tribal identity. When a sick person's family has determined that a practitioner is necessary, a hataalii is called in, frequently accompanied by an herbalist and/or a diagnostician (both of whom are of lower status).There are some 200 plants in the Navaho pharmacopoeia and the herbalists gather these plants and make medicines, some of which are used directly, and some of which are used ceremonially by the hataalii. The diagnosticians, or â€Å"diviners,† are usually women who â€Å"listen† to the spirits and typically provide a statement of the problem. This procedure may be accompanied by such diagnostic procedures as hand trembling, star gazing, candle gazing, and crystal gazingà ¢â‚¬â€all of which involve the inward focusing of the practitioner's attention, with the purpose of facilitating insight as to the nature of the problem.Every hataalii must go through a long and arduous period of training and apprenticeship; they must earn the approval of their teachers and their community by demonstrating that they can perform successfully (Sandner, 1979). The â€Å"singing shaman’s† memory must be impeccable; the effort required to learn one major chant has been compared to that of obtaining a university degree (Sandner, 1979). A patient with a break or fracture is usually sent to an allopathic practitioner, although Sandner observed a Navaho specialist set broken bones â€Å"in a true scientific manner† (p. 8). In the Navaho system, the patients' first priority is that of treatment, and they assume the role of cooperating with the practitioner by taking an active part in their diagnosis and treatment. The major priority of the patient's fami ly is to seek diagnosis and treatment for its indisposed family members, seeking qualified personnel. It is the family’s role to determine payment, an important responsibility because some Chant Ways last for several days and the fee may exceed several months’ salary.The major priority of the patient's community is to support the sick patient. This is done by attending the Chant Way and facilitating his or her treatment. The community plays the role of preserving traditions and training new practitioners. This latter task is difficult, given the high cost of apprenticeships, especially for the hataalii. The goal of this healing model is integration within the framework of cosmic harmony, and the rejection of the effects of sorcery which are seen as alien to this harmony (Sandner, 1979).According to Kluckhohn (1962), the Navahos are â€Å"generations ahead† of U. S. physicians in treating the whole person. The goal of Navaho healing is to restore the patient's ha rmony with his or her family, clan and universe. The U. S. office of alternative medicine model In April 1995, the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) of the United States National Institutes of Health (NIH) held a conference on research methodology (O'Connor, Calabrese, Cardena, Eisenberg, Fincher, Hufford, Jonas, Kaptchuck, Martin, Scott, & Zhang, 1997).The charge of this conference was to evaluate research needs in the field of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), and several working groups were created to produce consensus statements on a variety of essential topics. The panel on definition and description accepted a dual charge: to establish a definition of the field of complementary and alternative medicine for purposes of identification and research; to identify factors critical to a thorough and unbiased description of CAM systems, one that would be applicable to both quantitative and qualitative research.The panel defined CAM as follows: Complementary and alternat ive medicine (CAM) is a broad domain of healing resources that encompasses all health systems, modalities, and practices and their accompanying theories and beliefs, other than those intrinsic to the politically dominant health system of a particular society or culture in a given historical period. CAM includes all such practices and ideas self-defined by their users as preventing or treating illness or promoting health and well being. Boundaries within CAM and between the CAM domain and the domain of the dominant system are not always sharp or fixed. O'Connor et al. , 1997) The second charge of the panel was to establish a list of parameters for obtaining thorough descriptions of CAM systems. The list was constructed on 14 categories first conceptualized by Hufford (1995, p. 54ff): 1. Lexicon. What are the specialized terms in the system? 2. Taxonomy. What classes of health and sickness does the system recognize and address? 3. Epistemology. How was the body of knowledge derived? 4 . Theories. What are the key mechanisms understood to be? 5. Goals for Interventions. What are the primary goals of the system? 6.Outcome Measures. What constitutes a successful intervention? 7. Social Organization. Who uses and who practices the system? 8. Specific Activities. What do the practitioners do? What do they use? 9. Responsibilities. What are the responsibilities of the practitioners, patients, families, and community members? 10. Scope. How extensive are the system’s applications? 11. Analysis of Benefits and Barriers. What are the risks and costs of the system? 12. Views of Suffering and Death. How does the system view suffering and death? 13. Comparison and Interaction with Dominant System.What does this system provide that the dominant system does not provide? How does this system interact with the dominant system? The 14th category regards research methods and it not appropriate for this essay, one which focuses on descriptions. Peruvian Curanderismo The OAM categories can be illustrated with an Andean ethnomedical system, namely Pachakuti (i. e. , â€Å"world reversal† or â€Å"transformation†) Mesa Curanderismo, a tradition deeply rooted in the Huachuma and Paqokuna traditions and blended with aspects of Paqokuna Curanderismo. They have been adapted to become accessible to the industrialized world by OscarMiro-Quesada of the Pachakuti Mesa tradition. I have discussed this system with two of its leading English-speaking practitioners, Oscar Miro-Quesada (2002) and his student Matthew Magee (2002). In addition, I have observed Magee perform two ritualistic Mesa ceremonies. Because of its complexity and sophistication, this system can be described in terms of the OAM categories (O'Connor et al. , 1997): 1. Lexicon. Specialized terms come from Spanish, Aymara (an Andean language), and two forms of assimilated Quechua language, the â€Å"rural† form (i. e. , Runasimi) and the â€Å"high† form (i. . , Khapaqsimi) —the latter spoken by royalty or people in positions of power. In describing the ethnomedical and social communitary function of Peruvian Curanderismo, however, it is important to note that several terms have changed over time. For example, the contemporary terms used to describe the shaman and the sorcerer are maestro and brujo, respectively. However, if one traces the lineage of the Pachakuti Mesa tradition, one would find the terms curandero and malero (post-Conquest), hampiq and layqa (Inca pre-Conquest), and kamasqa and sonqoyog (pre-Inca) as well.There are also variations between charismatic and non-charismatic healers and, most recently, between Pachakuti Mesa practitioners and neo-shamanic practitioners. 2. Taxonomy. The Pachakuti Mesa tradition recognizes and addresses a wide variety of physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual classes of health and sickness (Magee, 2002). Within this system, there are several types of ailments, and Spanish words are used to describ e them: enfermedad de dano (a sickness caused by human intention), enfermedad de Dios (a God-given sickness), contagio (contagious sickness), and encantos (sickness caused by enchantment).Examples of the most common, enfermedad de dano, include harmful intention directed toward the ears (por oreja), through the mouth (por boca), through the air (por aire), or by loss of one's â€Å"etheric body† or soul (sombra). The latter is typically brought about by susto or espanto (i. e. , magical shock or fright). More extreme is shucaque, or fright by trauma. In addition, there are sicknesses caused by envy and the â€Å"evil eye† (por mal de ojo) and by an â€Å"evil wind† (mal aire). The ritual encounter between the patient and the practitioner can be viewed as a dialogue about dano in which the shaman (i. . , curandero or curandera) uses a persuasive rhetoric (in speech and in song) in conjunction with ritualized activities to transform the patient's self-understandin g, hence his or her well-being. Most physical ailments fall into the category, enfermedad de Dios. In many traditions, practitioners do not deal with these conditions, but Pachakuti Mesa shamans are an exception. The visual symptoms of a God-given sickness are similar to the vista en virtud (â€Å"sight in virtue and power†) that practitioners manifest after ingesting the San Pedro cactus, a mind-altering substance.As a result these symptoms rarely show up in the campo medio, the â€Å"middle field† of the practitioner's healing altar, when he or she is performing a diagnostic rastero (i. e. , divination or â€Å"tracking†). 3. Epistemology. When tracing the origins of the Pachakuti Mesa tradition back through its oral lineage within Peruvian shamanism, one must go back to the Sechin culture, as well as the later Chavin, Tiahuanacu, Paracas, Nasca, Moche, Lambayeque, Chimu, Wari, Inca (or Inka), Aymara, Runa (or Quechua), and Mestiso traditions.Although archeolo gical discoveries in the 1980s suggest that Peru’s central highlands were inhabited from 8,000 BCE and the origins of Peru’s shamanic technology can be traced back at least to 2,000 BCE, many practitioners believe that Mesa-related healing practices were utilized far earlier. 4. Theories. When working with a Mesa, a practitioner's healing altar, the key mechanisms are believed to be his or her ability to control and direct unseen forces and entities.This is accomplished through proper utilization of the â€Å"field of the magician† (campo ganadero) as well as the â€Å"field of the mystic† (campo justiciero). Mastery of these two skills allows the practitioner to surrender his or her personal will or agenda, becoming an open, transparent vessel for Spirit to flow through, unhindered. The mastery of these â€Å"fields† is symbolized on either side of the Mesa, while the practitioner, as Master Healer or maestro, resides in the middle (campo medio). The healer also works with a supernatural hierarchy through a process of co-creation with Spirit.This hierarchy is believed to be a unified, interdependent system that provides practitioners with limitless sources of guidance and power. These sources include the Apukuna (Sacred Mountains), Huaringas (Sacred Highland Lagoons), Pachamama (Mother Earth), Mama Killa (Grandmother Moon), Inti Tayta (Father Sun), Auquis (Nature Spirits), Tirakuna (the â€Å"Watchers†Ã¢â‚¬ ), Mallquis (Tree Spirits), Machukuna (Ancestors), Machula Aulanchis (Benevolent â€Å"Old Ones†), tutelary animal allies, the elements of nature (e. g. , unu, wayra, nina, allpa), and various Roman Catholic saints (e. . , San Cipriano of Antioch, Brother Martin de Porres). Working with these sources requires a delicate balance, not only through the practitioner's negotiation of control and surrender, but through living a lifestyle that reflects this balance (ayni or â€Å"sacred reciprocity†). Train ing involves a culturally sanctioned â€Å"calling† into the tradition. When a maestro passes on his or her knowledge or bequeaths one's practice to an initiate, there is an initiatory phenomenon (karpays) and a â€Å"magical contract† (pacto magico). . Goals for Interventions. Healing is a spiritual phenomenon. Sickness is considered to have its origin in, and gain its meaning from, the Spirit world. The purpose of life itself is to be initiated into the visionary regions of Spirit and to maintain oneself in concert with all creation (Achterberg, 1985). Hence, the goal for intervention in Pachakuti Mesa Curanderismo is a successful florecimiento (â€Å"flowering of fortune† healing ritual) that is used to strengthen a person's physical and spiritual systems.Strengthening a patient's runa kurku k'anchay (â€Å"luminous body†), as opposed to suppressing the symptom, empowers the patient to remove the sickness-causing intrusion with his or her own innate he aling capacities. Once the patient's personal power has been augmented, there is often a need to go further. This is especially true if the problem is extreme, as in â€Å"soul loss,† â€Å"possession,† â€Å"enchantments,† and potent acts of dano (e. g. , curses, certain types of contagion).In these cases, there is often a need to intervene on behalf of a patient with specific techniques for removal in the form of extraction (chupa), or counteracting the attack through ritual battle (volteando, volteada, or botando in which the curse is thrown back to its sender). Successful interventions of this kind usually completely disperse the patient's negative condition and symptoms, and generate sickness in the person who initiated the curse. Depending on the original severity of the curse, death of the sorcerer has been known to occur. 6. Outcome Measures.A successful intervention is gauged primarily by the quality of the florecimiento, which brings about the energeti c restoration or supplementation of a person's potentials. This â€Å"flowering† of dormant potentialities brings forth qualities in the person necessary to maintain a sustainable livelihood. 7. Social Organization. Depending on the level of shamanic mastery attained, practitioners will be assigned various civic units of geographical space in which to work, ranging from the ayllu (extended family or community), to the llaqta (village or town), and finally the suyu (region).A curandero (or curandera) performs shamanic functions in this system. They include working with sicknesses brought about by sorcery, imbalance, envy, etc. , providing insight into conditions of the harvest, resolving interpersonal conflicts, influencing the weather, finding lost items (as well as lost persons or souls), and attending to a variety of spiritual, mental, emotional, and physical conditions. These healing sessions are primarily conducted on Tuesdays and Fridays.The curandero (or curandera) also performs specific ceremonial services for the community, such as providing ritual feedings (offrendas, despachos, or haywarikuys) for Pachamama (Mother Earth), the Apukuna (Sacred Mountains), and various supernatural beings (such as the â€Å"Watchers,† Nature Spirits, Tree Spirits, the Ancestors, the Benevolent â€Å"Old Ones†). A despacho or haywarikuy is a ritual offering used to promote a reciprocal exchange of thanks between human communities and the natural world.In the Paqokuna tradition, the pampa misayoq (ritual specialist) may learn to create and perform several hundred different types of despacho or haywarikuy ceremonial rituals. The performances are quite diverse and comprise 24 basic elements (recados) in the form of plant, animal, mineral, and human made products. All of these elements are reverently arranged on a square sheet of paper and either burned or buried as a way to promote the lifestyle of ayna (sacred reciprocity). There are offerings for birt hs, deaths, marriages, good luck, prosperity, longevity, and harvests, to name a few.It is also common for practitioners to use despachos to bless certain spaces, such as living quarters, work places, and sacred sites. There are various types of curanderos and curanderas, e. g. , the alto misayoq (herbalists), the pampa misayoq (ritual specialists), and the kuraq akulleq (literally, â€Å"master chewers of coca†). The latter is considered to have attained the highest level of mastery and rank within the shamanic hierarchy. Both males (curanderos) and females (curanderas) are employed as healing practitioners in this tradition.The services of a brujo (or sorcerer) can be purchased to adversely affect the health of a rival, or to assure success in business, love, and other aspects of personal gain. The person who has â€Å"hired† a brujo may reveal this fact to an ally, who will subsequently pass the news along a network that eventually leads to the intended target. Simi larly, the curandero’s or curandera's analysis of the source of a patient’s suffering is often a topic of subsequent conversation between social intimates of the patient; this is also true of the countermeasures (e. g. , the volteada or ritual in which sorcery is reversed) often used by the shaman.Potential patients for both the curandero and brujo include most of the members of the community, but when seeking medical assistance from the curandero, patients also commonly see both a curandero and an allopathic physician, often not openly discussing their visit to the former. This reluctance to reveal utilization of the indigenous healing system applies to any member of the social system, from the wealthy business executive to the poor farmer. Patients of curanderos and brujos include owners of businesses, political office holders, educators, military officers, and even a few medical professionals.These persons are willing to spend significant amounts of money and subjec t themselves to physically exhausting ritual treatments because they have shared with curanderos the belief that sorcery can be the cause of sickness. The majority of patients for both the curandero and brujo are women. This may be due to the inferior role of the female as a subordinate within the public transcript of male privileged society (e. g. , the values of machismo which support gender-based hierarchies, and the subsequent psychological and social conflicts that arise as a result).Through the sorcerer, women can gain access to powers that guarantee spousal fidelity (e. g. , â€Å"love magic†), thus eliminating the competition (e. g. , dano). Even the apprehension that a woman might pursue this alternative can act as an effective sanction. The curandero, on the other hand, provides women with the means to redress wrongs and to hold men accountable for their actions. 8. Specific Activities. a. Diagnosis: Diagnosis can be carried out through a variety of activities, for example, a rastreo (divining and tracking), coca leaf divination, reading the entrails of a guinea pig, or casting shells, etc.However, the source of diagnosis most commonly utilized in healing situations by Huachuma curanderos is the San Pedro cactus. The entheogenic San Pedro imbues the healer with vista en virtud (virtue, vision, and insight), which enables him or her to diagnose not only the illness, aliment, or disease of a patient, but often the source of said illness, aliment, or disease and specific ways to cure it. The curandero’s mesa (personal healing altar) also plays a vital role in the divinatory process of diagnosis, e. g. , by speaking to the curandero through the cuenta (the history, story, narrative, or â€Å"account†) of a specific piece or pieces.There are also practitioners who will â€Å"read† the energy of a person’s poq’po or wayrari (so-called â€Å"electromagnetic energy field†) to detect imbalances or deficiencies within that energy field and as a means for diagnosis. Ultimately, the above forms of diagnosis are highly effective and are commonly referred to by anthropologists because of the mystical flavor of shamanic healing arts. However, one must not overlook the curandero’s keen ability to observe with his or her senses (e. g. , simply observing how a person looks, smells, feels, interacts with the world).Curanderos will also often check a person’s tongue, nose, eyes, ears, glands, etc. , as a means for diagnosis. The combination of practical and mystical forms of diagnosis have availed the curandero with a high degree of accuracy regarding diagnosis. b. Treatment: The various modes of treatment employed by the curandero are as diverse as the conditions requiring treatment. However, nearly all treatments involve the use of a mesa (healing altar). A mesa is the sacred healing altar of a curandero, one that works in mediation with spiritual and cosmic forces for ritual healing .It is a microcosmic embodiment of a macrocosmic reality. This shamanic altar contains ritually empowered objects, which are aesthetically arranged on a sacred textile (unkhunas) to reflect the system of medicine employed by its carrier, e. g. , his or her lineage, cosmological background, animal allies, spirit guides, personal apukuna and huaringas (sacred mountains and lagoons). There are four kinds of objects primarily incorporated into a Pachakuti Mesa: khuyas (sacred stones), sepkas (power objects), estrellas (gifts from the spirits of the mountains), and enqas (totem fetishes).Among these, it is also common to find batas, palos, and espadas (staffs, sticks, and swords used for protection), florecimientos, (extractions, infusions, ritual battle), pututus (conch shells used to â€Å"call in† spiritual assistance and loosen blocks in an person’s body), seguros (good luck charms, protection pieces), rumikuna or khuyas (stones used for healing), condor feathers (used for directing energy and cleansing a person’s poq’po or energy field), huacos (objects and artifacts from Colonial and pre-Columbian times used to anchor specific energies into the medicine ground, often that of the ancestors), agua de Florida or agua de Kananga (colognes and perfumes, which are spayed through the mouth for cleansing and purification), rattles and whistles (to balance or bring in energy, commonly used when singing tarjos or medicine songs).It is also common to find candles, crosses, images of Roman Catholic saints, meteorites, ceremonially woven belts (chunpis), crystals, holy water, water from the melting ice of glaciers, San Pedro cactus, tobacco, coca leaves, singha (a combination of coca, tobacco, cane alcohol, and such perfumes as agua de florida, taboo, and siete poderes (which is imbibed through the nose), and incenses such as palo santo or copal. An herbal pharmacopoeia can occasionally be found as well. These objects (as well as the items spec ific to the individual mesa carrier) are arranged in a spatial configuration on the sacred textiles (unkhunas) and worked with to assist in the attainment of physical, emotional, spiritual, and mental integration and balance for the patient in the healing session.When a Pachakuti Mesa is used in ritual healing the distinction between the symbol and that which the symbol represents is dissolved. The objects arranged upon the mesa become the mountains, the rivers, the puma, or the empowered representation of the curandero’s own healing. Within this state of non-ordinary consciousness the line that delineates subject and object blurs, and the curandero is able to work with the mesa to bring about healing for the patient on an energetic level, which working at the source of the condition rather than through medicating the symptoms. Treatment also commonly involves incorporating the family members of the patient in the healing ceremony.This helps ensure that the patient will not o nly return to his or her community transformed, but he or she will return to a transformed community as well. Curanderos often find themselves acting simultaneously as apologists for, and avengers of, social injustices. 9. Responsibilities. a. Practitioner responsibilities: To attain a competent level of mastery through apprenticeship and experiential training, the aspiring practitioner must complete a series of rites of passage (karpays) governed by his or her teacher, elders and peers in the tradition, and the spiritual hierarchy. An example of the latter would be a demonstration of using coca leaves for diagnostic purposes.Once an apprentice is deemed qualified by his or her community, he or she may begin seeing patients on a small scale, but must build a solid reputation as a competent healer. This requires that the curandero consistently provide accurate diagnosis and effective treatment for the patients in need of healing. The curandero is also responsible to recommend alterna tive means for healing if he or she is not capable or does not specialize in the condition presented by the patient. In addition to being a qualified and capable healer, the curandero must also live a lifestyle of ayni, which reflects not the qualities of the tradition, but the living example of balance mirrored by nature and the living cosmos.This requires one to exist in uninterrupted communion with the spiritual hierarchy, to live as a perpetual student of life, and to continually deepen one’s relationship with the phenomenal world, with one’s internal world, and with the living universe around one. b. Patient responsibility: To be open and willing to participate in the healing being offered, as well as to be willing to implement the advice or prescription suggested by the curandero. The patient is also responsible to provide some form of reciprocal exchange for the healing service provided, either monetarily or through some form of barter or trade. c. Family respon sibility: To be present for the healing ceremony if possible, and to provide support with the information gained from the healing session to ensure the patient is able to recover in an environment that supports this new, transformed paradigm.The family is also responsible for communicating this information to pertinent community members who can further reinforce the transformed living environment for the patient. The family is often responsible to help compensate the curandero, either through monetary means or through trade if the patient is unable to do so. d. Community responsibility: To be a supplemental presence of support for the patient and to reinforce the transformed living environment for the person in transition. 10. Scope. This type of Peruvian shamanism has been practiced over the millennium in remote, northern areas of Peru. This isolation has helped Pachakuti practitioners preserve their independence and their prerogatives.The apparent success of the Pachakuti system i n its place of origin is an additional reason for its longevity. The scope of this healing system is comprehensive, as it is used for physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual problems. However, there are allopathic treatments and technologies that would bolster traditional medicine, and well-meaning curanderos and curanderas often endeavor to make referrals to a clinic or hospital (typically, at a distance) if that would help their patient. 11. Analysis of benefits and barriers. What are the risks and costs of the system? Due to the recent advances in allopathic medical technology, competition between biomedical organizations and indigenous systems is becoming more common.The boundaries that delineate these two systems, and the conditions they address, are often blurred. Poor people often turn to indigenous healers because biomedical treatments are too expensive. However, curanderos are not part of a recognized profession and therefore operate in legal and social marginality. Many curanderos experience harassment from local police, who use rarely enforced legal restrictions on non-licensed medical practitioners to extort protection payments. Church and civic officials have also been party to repressive measures against curanderos. Curanderos certainly recognize the tenuous position that they occupy in the Peruvian medical system.Some prefer to maintain a very low profile to avoid the notice of local officials, for example, by performing their ritual sessions in remote agricultural fields. Other curanderos bank on the support of well-connected patients to keep them out of trouble. 12. Views of suffering and death. This system holds that there is a basic continuity between life and death. When the physical body dies, life and death are not seen as separate, for life cannot exist without death. When the physical body dies it goes into the Earth and feeds it, giving life to the plants and trees. The plants feed the animals, who feed the Earth, ad infinitum, in a self-regulating interdependent relationship seen as the great web of life.All things are born from Pachamama (Mother Earth) and all things shall return to her. Views of the afterlife vary from practitioner to practitioner but most believe in life after the physical body dies. All in all, death is seen as a natural process, inseparable from life. Anthropologists have long noted that life’s transitions (i. e. , birth, death) are commonly marked by elaborate rituals, the purpose of which is to smooth the disruption to the social order that such status changes can cause. The body of the person undergoing the transition is often the target of symbolic manipulations: special decorations (e. g. , burial costumes) and purification (e. g. , cleansing).A particularly frequent symbolic message conveyed by these rituals is death and rebirth; the person is dying from the social status previously held and being born into a new identity. Indigenous rituals are reminiscent of hospital patie nts who put on the standardized garb required by the institution, as well as the strict fasting enforced before surgery, the cleansing processes requested of the patient as well as surgical staff, the process by which the patient’s vital signs and consciousness are taken to a death-like state, and the patient's frequently cited post-surgery sense of being reborn. The fact that all these features have medical justifications and explanations does not diminish their potential symbolic impact. Much of the suffering experienced by Peruvians is attributed to acts of dano, or sorcery.This is especially potent in a society like that of Peru where personal relationships are critical to economic survival and where the powers of the sorcerer and the curandero are assumed to have empirically verifiable effects. Dano, as a threat or as an accepted diagnosis, can have serious social repercussions no matter how outsiders to the tradition might view the forces that the sorcerers claim to con trol. Peruvian society’s rigid social hierarchies make people increasingly dependent upon personal networks in order to survive. The resulting burden of economic self-interest loaded onto personal relationships has contributed to a social world in which mistrust inevitably accompanies interdependence.It should not be surprising, therefore, that social relations would be the assumed source of misfortune and suffering for rural Peruvians. This stands in contrast with traditional Andean attributions of sickness to natural forces and supernatural transgressions. 12. Comparison and Interaction with Dominant System. What does this system provide that the dominant system does not provide and how does this system interact with the dominant system? On the one hand, Miro-Quesada (2002) believes that global shamanism is an emerging phenomenon of the 21st century. The Pachakuti teachings are intended to empower all interested persons, allowing them to work with unseen forces in order to promote healing and balance through spiritual mediation.But on the other hand, the dominant role being played by allopathic biomedicine often rules out people’s interest and participation in an indigenous healing system (e. g. , Levi-Strauss, 1955). Conclusion On July 14, 2003, Matthew Magee performed a ritualistic ceremony on the top of Mount Tamalpais in Marin County, California, in the spirit of Kamasqa Curanderismo, one of the components of the Pachakuti Mesa tradition. This ceremony waves together several themes that expressed the participants' reverence for the Earth as teacher and mother. Together, the group created a consecrated Earth offering (despacho) to foster a lifestyle of sacred reciprocity (ayni) and an awareness of life's interdependence, calling upon participants to live harmoniously with oneself, with others, and with the planet as a whole.There are ecopsychologists who believe that healing the planet is basically a shamanic journey; if so, traditional medi cal systems can play a vital role in this endeavor. However, while herbal medicines, indigenous treatments, and shamanism are becoming faddish in the West, indigenous systems in their original contexts are becoming increasingly endangered. It is crucial to support indigenous cultures and learn what shamanism and related systems of healing have to offer the postmodern world before archival research in libraries replaces field research as the best available method for investigating these healing systems. Their longevity indicates that they have served many groups of eople quite well over the millennia. The question remains as to what they can offer a world where allopathic biomedicine is not only revered but also powerful, a world in which reality is constricted to measurable physical dimensions and alternative perspectives are dismissed as â€Å"folk psychology† (Kelly, Kelly, Crabtree, Gauld, Grosso, & Gordon, 2007, p. 54). This discussion of Pachakuti and Navaho healing mode ls has demonstrated the adaptability of many traditional healing systems to conditions in the contemporary world. The eclectic nature of the system bodes well not only for its survival but its compatibility with collegial practitioners of allopathic medicine.Finally, the ecological emphasis of the two systems provide inspiration for ecologists and their colleagues who agree with indigenous practitioners that the Earth is at risk, and that collaborative efforts are needed to redress the natural balance. References Achterberg, J. (1985). Imagery in healing: Shamanism and modern medicine. Boston: Shambhala. 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